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er Boat 
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The Rudder Publishing Co. 



New York 



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Power Boat 
Hand Book 



By Capt. Paul C. Warde 

Price $1.00 



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Copyright 1920 

BY 

The Rudder Publishing Co., 

9 Murray St., 

New York 



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CONTENTS : 



W3 



PAGE 

The First Run 5 

Anchoring 9 

Anchors 1 1 

Ground Tackle 13 

Chains for Larger Vessels 15 

Breaking the Hold of an Anchor 15 

Rope '. 16 

Knots 18 

Short Cruises 20 

Extended Cruising 22 

Small Boats Landing Through a Surf 26 

Points on Boat Handling 27 

Twin Screw 28 

System of Buoyage in United States Waters 28 

Buoys, Colors, Numbers and Shapes 33 

Piloting 35 

How to Use and Read Charts 42 

Lights 51 

Compass 60 

Ranges Taken from Shore y^) 

Finding Distance of Fixed Object 76 

Fog Signals 79 

Submarine Bells 83 

Velocity of Sound 84 

Tides 85 

Gulf Stream 86 

High and Low Water 86 

Mark a Lead Line 91 

Sounding 92 

Lead Line 92 

Wind and Waves 93 

Wind Classification 94 

Size of Oceans 95 

Oil on Water 96 



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r e f a c e 



The average beginner, or the new boat owner, usually has 
many doubts and fears as to his ability to operate and navigate 
his first power boat. When confronted with the many rules, 
regulations and requirements of boating, he often thinks the 
game is more than he bargained for, and unless he is, or has 
been, a boat and water lover from boyhood days, he is apt to 
join the rocking chair fleet of the near-by club and watch his 
newly acquired ship swinging at anchor. On the other hand, 
the real boat and water lover starts in, no matter what comes, 
and the outcome usually is a mastery of the first rules and 
men are not made in a day — in fact, some are never made, 
possibly because they start in where the good boatmen leave off; 
that old proverb, 'Tools rush in where angels fear to tread" 
should be styled 'Tools sail where boatmen quail". 

To answer a question that is often put to many boat opera- 
tors by a prospective beginner — "What should I know to properly 
run my own boat?" — the first answer should always be "horse 
sense" and its general use. Most anyone has at some time or 
another driven a horse, usually with a great deal of pleasure to 
himself and not much harm to the horse. If the new boat driver 
would use the same amount of care with his new boat as he 
did, or would with the horse, it would be easy sailing for every- 
one, but he won't, so here goes. The beginner should not 
attempt to start in with anything larger than the average 30- 
footer. Up to this size, the draught is light, usually about 2^ 
to 3 feet, upkeep low, and with average power economical to 



own; besides, a boat of this size is easily handled, and the 
beginner offers less danger to himself and others by placing 
this as his limit. Such a boat, when arranged for cruising, will 
make extended trips possible, but before so doing, the operator 
should first have a few things under his hat. 
rudiments for small-boat navigation, and a general loss of time, 
temper and friendship, not to overlook the paint. Good boat- 
First of all, some understanding of the power plant, the 
general way to start the engine, its adjustment for all speeds, 
such as spark retard and advance, throttle control, its oiling 
device, etc. Assuming this is understood, the next move is to 
know what way the steering gear is rigged. Whether the boat 
will turn the way the steering wheel turns, or whether the 
opposite way; this is really the most important thing to know 
before casting off your rope. Of course, practice makes perfect, 
but a know^ledge of the steering gear should be had, before a 
start is made. Becoming familiar with its action, also the 
action of the clutch, we will start the engine, of course, 
that it is properly oiled, etc., according to the book of directions, 
issued by the engine builder. If none is to be had, call in a 
good engine man, and have a thorough lesson on running your 
engine before going any further. Now we have the engine 
running, and we know what to expect when we turn the steer- 
ing wheel, and we know which way to operate the clutch, but, 
how about the water, is it all plain sailing, no rocks, mud fiats 
or sand bars? Usually one or more of the above are to be had 
before running very far in most waters. Having no chart 
aboard on the first run, we are informed by the man who knows 
that we steer for the black buoy, lying off the reef at the harbor 
entrance, and head out. We also learn we must pass this black 
buoy to starboard, which is the right-hand side of our boat; so 
we cast off. 



THE FIRST RUN 

Our engine, since starting, has been well throttled down, 
as there is really no use having it race away, wearing itself out 
for nothing, besides the shake and jar on the boat. Before 
putting in the clutch we speed up just a little; just enough not 
to stall the motor and then press in the clutch. Don't jam it 
in. Just press it up to the point where a little more effort will 
make it take hold and lock. 

We carefully steer out between the other boats and head 
for our black buoy, just in time to meet another boat coming in. 
We get one whistle from this incoming boat which we answer 
with one whistle and turn our boat to the right, enough to allow 
a safe distance between us and the incoming boat, which has 
also turned somewhat to the right to give us part of the channel. 
We pass the black buoy to starboard (our right side; as buoys 
have no port nor starboard, we must learn that the term pass to 
starboard, or pass to port, refers to the boat's side and not the 
buoy's) and head full speed for the lighthouse some couple of 
miles away. 

Now if we only had a chart aboard we could learn just how 
near that light we could go, whether the bottom was soft or 
rocky, whether the light was a white light or a red light. The 
paint on a lighthouse of course does not tell us the color of the 
light, but nevertheless if we had the Government book aboard 
called the "Light List" we would find this lighthouse is described 
with many other lights for this district. So on our return we 
had better make out a list of things we really should have. We 
hold well off the light not knowing what else to do, and keep 
on until we come to another black buoy. Should this also be 



5 



passed on the starboard? Now this is when and where we 
need a chart. Our good friend at the club is some miles away, 
but if we had a chart of the locality we would be independent. 
We therefore decide to turn back, receiving two sharp blasts 
from a large steamer which turned somewhat up to the left 
and passed close to us on our right hand or starboard side. We 
thereby learn that it is necessary for us to know what these 
whistles mean, and when and how they are to be used and given. 
Before we reach our club anchorage, we cut down our speed 
about half, as it is bad form to go rushing through a fleet of 
boats or narrow channels full speed. As we near our mooring 
we give it a wide berth as we pass, then turn about, head our 
boat up against the tide and straight for our "pickup" buoy. 
Throwing out the clutch and slowly coming up in reach of the 
buoy we pick up our line (with the boat hook, which we keep well 
forward and ready for this purpose) and make the line fast 
to the deck cleat. 

To properly make fast requires some knowledge of ropes 
and knots, and thus our first short run has taught us several 
things we lack, and each succeeding run will do likewise. 
Therefore, the following may help out the beginner and will 
be classified as : "Knowledge and Requirements for Short 
Runs;'' "Knowledge and Requirements for Short Cruises;" 
"Knowledge and Requirements for Extended Cruises". 

Knowledge and Requirements for Short Runs 

The operator should know how to start and stop the engine, 
have a thorough understanding of the oiling device, know how 
to adjust and regulate the carbureter, understand the adjust- 
ments of spark coil and timer — the general action of the clutch 
and its adjustments, also a thorough understanding of the 
steering gear and its action. 



The operator should have a chart of the waters on which 
he intends saihng, and should make a careful study of all 
marks, buoys, lights, etc., and become familiar with the character 
of the local waters and the use of dividers. A chart is really 
a very interesting sheet if once you get the "key of it", and yet 
little attention is given to a chart by the majority of small-boat 
owners, who seem to prefer to run blindly about, endangering 
and damaging their craft, rather than spend 50 cents, and make 
a little study of the waters they use. 

The Government has gone to unlimited trouble and expense 
to produce these sea maps, so why not avail yourself of the 
opportunity to understand and use them?. 

The boat should comply with all Government requirements 
and carry lights, life-preservers, bell, whistle, fire extinguisher, 
etc., according to its size and class, and not overlook two copies 
of the Pilot Rules, which every power boat is required to have 
aboard. The operator must take these Pilot Rules and make 
himself thoroughly familiar with all the required signals. The 
different situations should be practiced by using two toy boats, 
or a couple of small sticks will answer the purpose. When 
the occasion presents itself for the use of these signals you 
have no time to "present the book'*. The use and location of 
the lights should be understood. Seventy percent of the small 
boats running at night do not place or carry their lights cor- 
rectly, yet all requirements are plainly given in the Government 
rules. 

A Light List, which not only describes the character of all 
lights, but also gives a full description of the lighthouse, color, 
type or structure, etc., should be aboard every boat. This book 
is free, to be had at any custom house, and its value and practical 
use is proven when you come to, or pass a light the character of 
which is unknown to you. 



A great many boat operators seem to think the only thing 
necessary to know about buoys, is the general rule of passing : 
Red to starboard, Black to port on entering a port or harbor, 
and the reverse on leaving. This, of course, is all very well, 
but there are times when it is necessary to know whether the 
buoy you are approaching is a buoy placed to mark a local 
entrance or whether placed to mark an obstruction in the main 
waters. 

A party, cruising for the first time, wanted to put in at the 
Thimble Islands (Long Island Sound). They had their chart 
marked to correctly enter, but on approaching the outer island 
they passed a red buoy to starboard and just missed a bad reef 
by so doing. The buoy was a mark for entering the Sound and 
not a mark for entering the Thimble Islands — such is the value 
of using and understanding a chart. Become familiar with the 
different types of buoys; how they are placed by the Govern- 
ment to mark obstructions, or to lead to the best waters. When 
so understood, the passing is easy, as you will then know why 
buoys are there at all. Going down the inside route to Florida 
several sounds are crossed and many boats, making the trip for 
the first time, get into difficulty at the junction of the diff'erent 
rivers. The outer sand-spit is usually marked by a red and 
black buoy; as each river has a channel, this buoy marks the 
divide. The pilot, therefore, cannot pass this buoy on either side 
as in ordinary cases, but must know its marking (as shown on 
the chart), and allow for the same accordingly. 'To make 
short runs," know your water, pilot rules, what whistles mean, 
lights, and how placed, power plant, and the boafs action on 
different motions of the steering wheel. 

Here are a few points on handling, termed as minor, but 
still important. 

Always get well clear of a dock, fleet or float, before run- 
ning full speed. 

8 



Always slow clown when coming in. The clutch should be 
neutral, and the boat just moving as you draw up alongside of 
a dock, boat, or float, the boat coming up to such a position 
should head against the tide or wind. If tide and wind are in 
opposite directions, head up against the stronger of the two. 
Such a decision should be made before turning and the boat 
brought up parallel to the position wanted. The headway should 
be checked by reversing the engine and a line then put out 
from the bow followed by one from the stern. Never head 
straight in, always round off. A boat coming in, and intending 
to tie up alongside another boat, should provide proper fenders 
and have them ready for use. 

ANCHORING 

When anchoring a boat, knowledge of the water or bottom 
should be had before deciding on the spot. The best selection 
should be made for protection against wind and tide, especially 
if this anchorage is to be for several hours, or over night. By 
consulting the chart, you can get all necessary information, 
such as, character of bottom, rise and fall of tide, etc., and 
thus select an anchorage where the bottom is good for holding, 
where the water is deep enough and free from obstructions. 
You must consider the size of the water in selecting the harbor, 
and try to get protection from the shore, breakwater, or dock, 
and from every point possible. Having made the selection, you 
round up, with the boat's head against the wind, or tide, throw 
out the clutch, and get the anchor clear and ready to let go. 
You now check the boat's headway, then as it starts to back, 
let go the anchor and pay out just enough line or chain to reach 
the bottom taking note of about how much line is used. As 
the boat backs continue to pay out until about six or seven 



times as much line is paid out as the water is deep. The hold- 
ing quality of the bottom, size of anchor used, strength of wind 
and tide being the ruling factors. 

When an anchorage is selected for over night, it is a good 
plan to get a bearing from objects on shore, such as two promi- 
nent trees, or a tree and a house, taking the range from the 
bow when possible, as the bow moves much less than the stern 
when swinging at anchor. This range will show if the boat 
drags. Of course, a range so taken will open up as the boat 
swings on the anchor and may seem to be dragging, but a care- 
ful watch as the boat hauls up will decide the matter. 

When anchoring in a fleet of boats, the headway is checked 
as before. Select a place where you will have room to swing; 
round up against the wind or tide, the other boats showing the 
direction of one or both, reverse the motion of the boat and 
as she backs, let go. Never crowd in w^here the anchorage is 
taken — "first come, first choice". Never anchor over a set moor- 
ing; if you do, it's up to you to move on the return of the 
other boat. Always comply with the light rules when anchored 
at night. In riding out a gale, give out all the line possible. 
If in doubt of the tackle, have a second anchor ready, then as 
the boat swings to port or starboard, watch your chance, and as 
she brings up and is about to swing the opposite direction, let 
go the second anchor and pay out until the anchors and the 
boat form a triangle. When it is rough, this is the best way to 
have anchors down, as the boat swings far less when so ar- 
ranged. The longer the scope the better the anchor holds. Two 
anchors put out tandem are very efficient, if you are sure of 
your line or chain, but they require lots of space. The first 
is let go and the line paid out until near its end, the end is 
then bent (fastened) to the cable of the second anchor a few 
feet above this anchor, the second anchor is then let go and 

10 



its line paid out and finally made fast to a cleat, capstan or 
riding bitts. 

When anchoring in a river where the tide changes or where 
the space to swing is limited, anchors can be put down, one 
upstream and one downstream. This is called mooring. By 
this arrangement the bow of the boat moves very little up or 
down stream; the heading, of course, is against the tide, provid- 
ing the wind isn't the strongest. First put down one anchor 
as usual, pay out and back the boat to where you wish the 
opposite anchor to go, have this ready and let go when the boat 
is twice as far away from the first anchor as its position will 
be when you haul in half the cable of the first and pay out 
enough scope to make the second anchor hold. You will then 
have one upstream and one down, with the boat between. On 
small boats where the anchors are easily handled, sometimes it 
is easier to put down one and set the second by using the dink 
or rowboat. 

At times when at anchor the tide runs against the wind 
and the small boat has a habit of nestling up to the large boat 
like an old cow with a calf. This is annoying, if nothing more, 
as the dink usually practices the "Morse Code'* on the side of 
the boat; and if it is night, sleep is quite impossible; by sub- 
merging a water pail and fastening it with a short line to the 
stern of the dink the small boat is held well off from the large 
one. Try it. 

ANCHORS 

Of the several types of anchors now on the market, the old- 
fashioned anchor and the double-fluked stockless types are most 
in use. Anchors resembling the double-fluke type were proposed 
as early as 1850, but not until about 1875 did they come into 
anything like general use. Each has advantages not found in 
the other. 



11 



The old-fashioned anchor usually strikes the bottom crown 
first, falls over on the end of the stock, the arms or flukes lying- 
horizontal. From this position the drag of the chain capsizes or 
cants it, pulling the stock parallel to the bottom and pointing 
one fluke in a position to dig or hook. As the chain straightens 
out and the drag is increased the fluke is forced into the bottom. 
In good holding ground this type frequently buries itself. The 
tendency of the old-fashioned anchor to rock into the bottom 
under a pull is one of its most valuable characteristics. For this 
reason it is important to give plenty of chain or cable; a long 
scope is necessary no matter what type of anchor is used. 

The holding power of an anchor is not due entirely to the 
size or area of the palm. A large palm at times may be a dis- 
advantage when an anchor drags, as it usually does slightly 
when taking hold; an excessively large palm breaks up the 
bottom and carries the soil along, leaving a furrow behind 
through which the arms and crown move without resistance. A 
large palm has a great disadvantage on a hard, sandy bottom, 
and in such places a sharp-pointed fluke with hardlv any palm 
takes hold the best. 

When a boat swings around her anchor, the cable or chain 
leads off to one side and comes up with a pull upon the ring, 
which has a tendency to roll the anchor over and so break 
out the fluke. The stock on the old-fashioned anchor prevents 
the rolling over, at the same time the fluke is worked deeper 
at the bottom by the boat's action. Experience teaches that the 
old-fashioned anchor holds best for that reason and especially 
when the bottom is weedy then this type has it *'all over" the 
stockless double-fluke type. 

The patent double-fluke anchor also has its good points, 
particularly the great advantage of handling and stowage, and 
if carried on the bow it is more easily and quickly catted and 

12 



nshed. The modern boat usually hoists, and draws the shank 
into the hawse-pipe. On some boats the hawse-pipe is large 
enough to take in the whole anchor. Both of these arrange- 
ments do away with catting and fishing. Moreover, this anchor 
is always ready to let go. It can be dropped from the hawse- 
pipe, without the sudden jerk which usually starts the chain 
running out too fast. The advantage of this anchor over the 
old-fashioned type, and one that must be given great considera- 
tion, is its freedom from fouling. As it lies on the bottom, too, 
it presents no projections like the old-fashioned anchor which 
may endanger the boat grounding on the top fluke with a change 
of wind or tide. 

The patent anchor always requires more scope of cable 
or chain, to make it hold, than the old-fashioned type. This is 
because a pull upward on this type has a tendency to break 
out the flukes, whereas in the kedke type the fluke is forced in. 

The mushroom anchor is generally used as a mooring anchor 
and is seldom carried aboard small cruisers. For a permanent 
anchor they surpass all other types, as they grip and bury in 
most all ground bottoms, besides, they are non-fouling and for 
that reason should be used as anchors for moorings. 

GROUND TACKLE 

What size anchor and what size of rope shall I use? is a 
common query of small-boat sailors. The answer is : Re- 
member that most lines fail through chafing and not lack of 
strength. A new ^-inch rope is much stronger than an old 
i54-ij^ch, and so on. 

How often have we seen a little 30-foot power cruiser come 
chugging into a harbor for a night and watched the owner bend 
a ^^-inch.line into a 40-lt)^ anchor, tumble it over and after 
taking a turn on a few fathoms of line, go below to turn in 



13 



for a snooze. No boat large enough to own an anchor should 
have a line less than s/^ of an inch in diameter. Remember 
that It IS not so much a question of length of a boat as the 
weight of the boat and area of surface exposed to the wind 
that determines the drag on the hook. A little suggestion to 
help in choosing ground tackle for small power boats is given 
in the following table: 

The Right Size Anchor 
Boats from 15 to 25 feet— One 30-lb anchor and a 5^-inch line 

" 50-rt) '' 
25 to 40 feet— *' 35-lt) 

" 75-ft) " 
" 90-tb *' 
" 40 to 60 feet— " 50-tb 
90-ft) 

" " 135-lt) " 

(The sizes of lines are given in diameter.) 

All cruisers should have at least one anchor line of at 
least 20-fathom.s' length, in addition to the other lines. 

Anchors of less than 50-lb weight should preferably be of 
admiralty or kedge type, not stockless. Personally, I would not 
use a stockless weighing less than 40 tb for anything but a row- 
boat, but there may be cases where this criticism would be 
unjust. 

Many figure the weight of a light anchor at i^^ tb for 
vach foot of length, and the heavy anchor at 2% tb for each 
foot of length. Some boatmen may consider this excessive, but 
too much is better than too little when it comes to anchors. 
Type of boats, and waters where used, are the important fac- 
tors, and must be considered. 



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14 



CHAINS FOR LARGER VESSELS 

Boats above 45 feet should have chain for the stream anchor. 
Chain is better — it does not chafe and is much easier on a boat 
in a seaway. The weight of the chain acts as a spring and is 
less liable to drag the anchor for that same reason, as it will not 
bring up with a jerk. This size boat is always equipped with a 
windlass or capstan, which makes it possible to use chain. 
Using chain where there is no windlass or capstan is not recom- 
mended. A swivel should be used between the anchor ring 
and chain, and should be at least as heavy, or as large a diameter 
as the chain. A size larger is still better. 

If you use a line and are anchoring for the night, or when 
anchored in a seaway, parcel the line with a piece of canvas 
where it leads through the chock, to guard against chafing. 

Good ground tackle is good insurance if properly used. A 
man who begrudges a proper outfit of ground tackle is a menace 
to himself and all yachtsmen. 

A boat should have one of the stockless type anchors and 
use chain, when possible. This anchor should be used in every 
case where a lengthy stop is to be made. Its non-fouling quali- 
ties make it more desirable: as the kedge or old-style anchor is 
quite apt to foul on the change of wind or tide. 

BREAKING THE HOLD OF AN 
ANCHOR 

Many times it so happens that an anchor becomes well 
bedded in the bottom and boats, when not equipped with a 
capstan, find it some job to get up the hook, when such is the 
case. The slack of the line should be entirely hauled in until 
the boat is right over the anchor, and a turn or so made around 
the cleat or sampson post, then by putting on power at slow 
speed the boat usually will break the hold, If the anchor has 

IS 



worked under a rock or ledge, the slack or scope should be 
taken about two-thirds in, and the boat steered to run around the 
spot where the anchor lies in a circle. This method usually will 
unhook an anchor when it is rock bound; running back and forth 
only works it still farther under the rock. 

ROPE 

Ropes are made of organic material such as cotton, hemp 
manila, grass, and of metals such as iron, steel, bronze and some- 
times aluminum. 

The class of organic materials is classified as to the material 
and the manner in which they are made up. Grass, manila and 
henip are spun into rope, while cotton is spun, braided and 
knitted. Braided and knitted ropes have the distinctive quality 
of being able to transmit torsional stresses such as a flexible 
shaft and are used for this purpose in the patent log-line Thev 
also are free from turns which make them valuable as signal 
halyards, though by the use of small swivels this bad feature 
of spun rope has been overcome for this use as signal halyard. 
When you do use cotton, remember it shrinks. Therefore do 
not haul your halyards taut in dry weather and wonder whv 
they parted m the first rain-squall. 

Ropes are made by twisting several yarns together into 
strands, each strand containing an equal number of yarns then 
laying them up in a spiral form, so that each separate yarn 'bears 
an equal strain. The strength of any single rope is the com- 
bined strength of each separate yarn, and unless these yarns 
are very carefully twisted together, so as to bring an equal strain 
upon each part, the rope is imperfect and untrustworthy In 
choosing rope, care should be taken that the strands are smoothly 
evenly, and closely laid. 

Spun ropes are three-stranded and four-stranded A three- 
stranded rope is more flexible than a four, but a four has 

16 



greater surface area for the same strength and weight and 
therefore wears longer. 

Hemp rope is harder and less flexible than manila and is 
used for standing rigging, while manila rope is used for running 
rigging. 

Grass or coir ropes are used where the rope is submerged 
often, as they do not rot when damp and can be stowed while 
wet. They are very elastic and are specially used for towing 
light weights. 

Just a few hints about this general class of organic ropes : 

Always dry these ropes before stowing them to prevent 
rotting. 

Projtect them from chafing by use of chafing gear or revers- 
ing end for end to bring the wear in difl^erent places. 

Always coil down right-handed or with the sun. 

The greater the surface the less the wear on any one 
strand, so use four-stranded for ropes whose particular wear is 
from chafing, such as anchor warps, for small boats, and boat 
falls. A small size rope would often be strong enough but would 
chafe through quicker. 

Metallic or wire ropes are generally either iron, steel, bronze, 
or combinations of metal strands spun with hemp or manila 
strands. 

Bronze rope is used for tiller ropes because it is non-magnetic 
and it will not rust. This is important as tiller ropes are often 
in inaccessible places. If it does not pass near your compass 
and it is where it can be easily examined and cared for to 
prevent rusting, a flexible steel tiller rope is cheaper and stronger 
for the same weight and also wears longer. 

Galvanized iron wire is used for standing rigging and the 
rusting in places where turns have broken the surface coating, 
such as around thimbles of an eye-splice, should be carefully 

17 



looked for. Most sailors think it wiser not to paint wire rope 
except for decorative purposes. If it is painted, be sure to 
remove all grease and water from the surface. 

Steel rope is used for running rigging because of its flexi- 
bility and lightness, but the majority of yachtsmen have little use 
for it as these boats are too small to make its use advisable. 

A combination of alternate strands of wire and hemp is made 
into rope known as a durable rope, and is used particularly for 
cargo falls as it is more flexible and easier to handle. 

A cable-laid rope is composed of three hawser-laid ropes, 
twisted the contrary way, so that it is in fact a nine-strand rope. 

A shroud-laid rope is a four-strand rope, twisted right- 
handed, in the same direction as Lht- course of the sun. 

A hawser-laid rope is composed of three strands of yarn, 
right-handed, with the sun. 

KNOTS 

Reference has been made to bending and making fast, etc. 
When it comes to knots, the average beginner is limited to tying 
his necktie, so some space is devoted to knots and splices. 

To make the overhand the right end is crossed over the left 
and the left tucked under; the end that is now right is crossed 
by the left and that tucked or put through the loop; this makes 
the square or reef knot, which is simple and most useful, but 
should not be used to fasten two ropes together. In making 
this knot care must be taken, at the start, not to cross the right 
end with the left — the outcome will be the Granny, which does 
not hold well and is hard to untie. 

A good knot to know how to tie and which is much used in 
docking is the bowline; when given slack, it's easy and quick 
to cast off and at times this is important. 

Hold the end of the rope in the right hand, and the standing 

18 



part of rope in the left. Lay the end you hold in your right 
hand over the standing part, turn the bight of the standing part 
(which is held in the left hand) over the end, so that it forms 
a loop with the end through. Lead the end around the stand- 
ing part above the loop so made, and bring it down. 

Bowline on a Bight.— Fvocecd as for a single bowline, the 
bight in the right hand, the standing part in the left. Now take 
the bight around the standing part, and pass it over the larger 
bight and haul taut. 

Running B ozvl in e.—Mdikt a bowline, then draw the standing 
part of rope through the loop formed in the bowline. 

Clove Hitch, which is easily made from the illustration and 
is a gOJDd knot to use when tying to a spile or making the dink 
fast to a rail, or when making fast to a running rope ; this knot 
unties easily but when it is to be used for some length of time the 
end should be brought around and a half-hitch made. 

A good knot to use in making a line fast to an anchor is 
the fisherman s bend; but where separate lines are to be used for 
their respective anchors an eye-splice and a thimble should be 
used, as it's much neater and far cleaner. The fisherman's 
bend is easily made. When making the line fast to the boat, 
if a cleat is used, take two turns around, then one over and 
around the forward end of the cleat, back the same way, 
and. around the back end of the cleat, and fasten with) a 
blackwall hitch. The size of the cleat and the size of rope 
must be considered so when making the hitch the cleat has 
not been all used up by the turns, etc. When anchoring 
it is well not to use or pay out all the line; making fast with 
some to spare is the safest way. Where a sampson post is used, 
the turns around, and blackwall hitch are generally used. Unless 
a couple of turns are first made before using the blackwall hitch, 
it's almost impossible to break a line loose without first reliev- 
ing the strain on the line. 

19 



To fasten two ends of a line together a sheet or becket 
bend is simple. When the strain will be heavy, put in a small 
but strong stick in the knot, called a toggle — there are several 
knots used to bend two ropes together. Boat operators should 
learn and practice these knots. The art of splicing also should 
be acquired. So many seem to think this is not necessary, 
nevertheless it is something every boatman should know. 



SHORT CRUISES 

The operator or owner should now be thoroughly posted on 
the requirements previously given for ''Short Trips", and before 
going cruising several items should be added to the boat's 
equipment which the Government Rules do not call for, or 
require. 

In order to leave the shore-line and sail a direct course 
from point to point a good reliable compass should be properly 
installed; the compass is, without doubt, the most useful in- 
strument used in navigation. In selecting a compass, the New 
Dial, showing all points on the inside, and the 360 degrees on 
the outside rim, should be preferred; this dial is now used by 
the Navy, and the courses given in the Government Pilot Books 
are given true, by degrees. A lead and line properly marked, 
a set of Parallel Rulers (or a modern course Protractor is 
usually preferred) should be aboard, and the operator should 
practice their use. In using either, the final course should be 
decided on, after allowing for the compass errors, called Varia- 
tion and Deviation. When the compass is once understood, a 
great feeling of certainty comes over the small-boat sailor, and 
whether near or far from land, the feeling of reliability and 
security is a revelation. The lead, if properly used, is of great 

20 



service when running in a fog, and for sailing in waters that are 
uncertain. It will tell yoiT whether the bottom is soft, hard, or 
rocky irrespective of the chart. The chart of course being made 
more or less ^from the use of the lead and line. When anchor- 
ing in strange waters, it is a good habit to first take a sounding 
of the bottom, before throwing the hook. The necessity for this 
is often shown when you see some cruiser high and dry on low 
water. In making these soundings for an anchorage, make 
several, and allow for a shift of wind and a turn of the tide, 
lor the boat swings a difference of 200 feet when you have only 
100 feet of scope. 

When starting on a cruise, lay out the route you are likely 
to take, make a careful study of the chart for the waters you 
will cover, sail by courses, even if you can see the point desired, 
you will then get experience and practice, so when the time comes 
when you can't see the point desired, you will be proficient in 
its use. 

Steering by Compass. — Beginners are apt to run a boat in 
circles when steering by compass, as they usually glue their 
eyes to the dial and mechanically work the wheel first one way 
then another, the result being a zigzag course. By looking ahead 
a certain sense of direction is obtained from the water directly 
ahead of the bow, the waves or light ripples showing direction, 
and the operator can then glance at his compass and correct 
the course of the boat accordingly. When in a sea the compass 
on small boats certainly behaves badly, as it is never still, but 
keeps a constant movement to the right or left ; the operator 
in such cases must note the swing of the dial, and take the 
center of the swing, as his point of direction. When running 
at night and the going is rough, a star can be used if one is 
prominent and in line with the boat's course. When sailing 
on a light, always keep your eye on that light, and not allow 

21 



your sight to wander around, especially if several other lights 
can be seen in the same general direction. The waves are not 
always the same size or height, and when rounding a windward 
point almost a direct course can be held, by watching the waves 
and only heading up when about to get a large one. 

Practice makes perfect, but the way some boats are steered, 
one would be led to believe it didn't. Acquaint yourself with the 
lights and buoys you will pass, and know what character the 
harbor lights are, where you intend to put in for over night. You 
may figure on arriving long before darkness comes on, but some 
unforeseen delay may take place, and if it does you will be in 
poor shape to make a study of the lights. The sailing, and all 
other lights should be ready for use before starting. You may 
start in calm weather and end up on rough, and to fool around 
filling lamps when a boat is dancing around is no pleasant job. 
When entering a strange harbor, or waters, and you become 
confused by a light, or doubtful of your locality, throw out the 
clutch and let her drift while a careful study is made of all 
things visible. How they bear from your present position, etc., 
and then calculate your position accordingly. Don't lose your 
head and go "slam-banging" in, not knowing where you are. 
Experience is a great teacher but a certain amount of knowledge 
before the experience is to the advantage of any sailor. ' 

EXTENDED CRUISING 

The boat for such trips should be of the A-No.-i class in 
every detail, having full accommodation for those intending to 
take the trip. Full capacity of water and gasoline must be 
considered, the size of the boat not being the main factor; 
but what the boat is, and can do under certain conditions, should 
rule. A good 30-footer will stand and go where a 60-footer 
would be unable to pull through. This has been proven more 

22 



than once. Have everything right before starting. If you have 
your doubts as to the condition the steering gear is in, or the 
reverse gear, the engine, magneto, or electrical equipment, don't 
start until it is inade right. The boat for extended cruising 
should have, besides the equipment required for "short trips or 
cruises*', a bearing finder. Several instruments are devised for 
this purpose, one being the pelorus ; this instrument is used in 
connection u^ith the boat's compass to ascertain the correct 
bearings of visible objects. It consists of a circular dial, 
graduated with the points and degrees like a compass card, but 
has no needle. A movable sighting bar admits of measuring the 
angle betv^een the boat's heading and any object sighted. The 
pelorus Js movable and bearings of objects may be taken, v^hich 
cannot be seen from the compass. This instrument may, there- 
fore, be used to determine the bearings of any object; the boat's 
heading from the compass, and the bearing of the object by 
pelorus, being noted simultaneously. The latest type of pelorus 
used by the Navy carries a small range finder, which admits 
of determining the bearing and distance of an object. 

Small boats as a rule are not equipped with a pelorus, but 
where expense isn't considered, should be so found. The 
Patent Log, which is now generally used, should be included 
in the equipment of boats for extended cruises. The speed 
of modern ships is measured by the Patent Log; which is 
mechanically operated by a Rotator towed some distance 
behind the boat. A line connecting this rotator (which 
has blades somewhat like a propeller) revolves, receiving its 
power or motion from the action of the water as it passes 
through the blades. Fastened to this is a series of gears and 
dials to which the motion of the rotator is transmitted by the 
cord, which is geared in such a manner as to register the dis- 
tance the rotator has been dragged through the water, thus 

23 



d 



fegistering the distance the boat has traveled through the water. 
The harpoon type of log requires hauHng in for reading, as 
the registering mechanism is towed with the rotator astern. The 
old chip log looked like a piece of pie with one edge weighted 
with lead. Three lines forming a triple span are led from its 
corners to a toggle and socket, and if the chip or piece of pie 
is thrown overboard it stands vertically in the water, and so 
long as no considerable pull is put upon the line, a fixed point 
from which to measure is to be had. This type of log is very 
rarely used on modern boats. 

The operator should be a good reader of charts; should 
understand all requirements previously given for boat handling; 
should be able to take a bearing, fit a position, correct compass 
error, and of course, be proficient in the use of Parallel Rules, 
and course Protractor. For extended offshore cruising, a power 
boat when rigged with a sail has many advantages. A search- 
light should also be found on this class of boat, or any boat run- 
ning much at night should be so equipped; deciding on buoys, 
picking up moorings and making docks are cases where a search- 
light comes to good use. While running in open water it is 
madness on the part of the operator to play the searchlight when 
not necessary, as it only blinds one and makes night sight 
limited. 

Rtmning in Shallow Water. — The operator should go slow 
and use the lead continuously unless sure of the water. A boat 
always drags when the water is shallow and this usually gives 
ample time to cut down the speed. A great many power boats 
will hunt for water, that is, they have a tendency to turn to 
where the water is deepest, especially in a narrow channel. 

The ebb tide usually makes the channel in tide waters, so if 
you follow or keep in the flow of the ebb, when navigating in 
shallow rivers, inlets or bays, the best water is found. When 

24 



running down a river the channel is made by the current, and 
by following the bends the navigator is sure to find the best 
water. 

Very few Northern boatmen have occasion to use an inlet, 
such as are found on the Jersey, and coast waters of Florida 
and the Carolinas, but the following may help you if ever you 
do : The Jersey inlets are most all buoyed by the Government 
and several are kept open by having sand-suckers constantly 
working, but farther down the coast very little, if any, is done 
to improve these breaks in the beach, so it takes great care and 
sometimes iron nerve to get in or out. 

Inlets are best at high tide and slack water. The less wind 
the better. The channels are made by the run of the ebb tide. 
It is easier to go out than to come in. When inside wishing to 
go out, the channel will show plainly by the break of water, or 
rip on the shores. Take soundings from a small boat if in 
doubt. A rowboat well handled can go close to the first line of 
breakers if the job is done at slack water. The channels usually 
run about North and South, but sometimes have turns requiring 
a boat to run parallel with the beach or sea; when rough, these 
inlets are dangerous. When outside wishing to get in, come in 
close but keep outside the first line of breakers ; one man to 
steer, and a man to look over prospects is best. Skirt the breakers 
(running parallel with the beach in most cases) and a line of 
fair water will be found leading in, usually with breakers, on 
each side and overlapping at some inlets. A short distance out 
this overlap makes the inlet look as if there were no space to 
enter; and sometirnes this is the case, so never go heading slam- 
bang in until you run up and down a few times to make sure. 
When it's very rough, keep out. You have a chance in deep 
water, but very little trying to get in if the inlet is breaking 
clear across, unless you know the place and use land as well as 
water marks. 

25 



SMALL BOATS LANDING THROUGH 
A SURF 

Boats employed where it is frequently necessary to beach 
them when the sea is breaking heavy, are constructed specially 
for the purpose to meet conditions peculiar to a particular 
locality. They are manned by crews who are not only expert 
surfmen, but who have a thorough knowledge of the best land- 
ing places, dangers and other local conditions. For them, land- 
ing through a surf is a matter attended with little or no diffi- 
culty. 

To safely land boats through a heavy surf is not only very 
difficult, but dangerous, and should never be attempted unless 
absolutely necessary. 

Along most beaches there are many sunken wrecks, and for 
a small boat to come in contact with such obstructions, in a 
heavy sea, would probably result in the loss cf all hands. Sound- 
ings, as given on a chart, very close to the beach cannot be 
relied on, as frequently a shore-line is moved in or off shore 
during violent storms and often causes small shoals, over which 
a small boat cannot pass. 

When making for a beach in a heavy surf, it is impossible 
for those in the boat to select the place most advantageous for 
landing, but those on the beach can easily see the best landing. 
Therefore, keep a sharp lookout for persons on the beach, and 
follow their directions if possible. 

A boat cannot be landed through a surf under sail, and all 
sail must be taken in before entering broken water. 

A boat cannot be handled in a heavy sea or broken water 
with a rudder, and this never must be attempted. To steer the 
boat, a long oar is used and the becket must be of good material. 
An oarlock cannot be used in place of a becket. 

26 



With a double-end boat, it is best to pull in to the beach 
head on, taking care not to allow her to broach-to (swing around 
broad side), and that every sea breaks either ahead or astern 
of her. This may be effected by either pulling the boat ahead 
or checking her way, according as her position may require. 
When the boat goes up on the beach on the last sea, all hands 
should jump out and hold on to her by the gunwales to prevent 
her being carried off again in the undertow. In some cases it 
may be advisable to use a small anchor to assist in holding the 
boat on the beach. An anchor can also be used off the stern to 
check the headway as you are coming in. 

With a square stern boat the method of landing is about 
the same as for a double-end boat, except that before entering 
the broken water she must be brought ahead to the sea and 
landed stern first. 

While the value of oil in landing during a heavy surf is 
not very great, its use is not to be discouraged altogether, as 
it will certainly diminish the danger rather than increase it. 

POINTS ON BOAT HANDLING 

The helm should never be put hard over when the boat is 
running full speed unless it is absolutely necessary. This puts 
an enormous and unnecessary strain on the shoe and rudder. 
The strain varies with the speed of the boat and the way the 
gear is rigged. 

When a boat starts from an anchorage or a dock, full speed 
should not be expected at once, because the engines must be 
warmed up before driving full speed and only a novice or 
"show-off" opens up when close to a dock. 

When it is intended to stop, slow the boat as when entering 
port, or coming to an anchor, and when the boat must go 
through shoal water, the engineer should have notice if possible 
as such information is of value to him. 

27 



Engines working ahead, throw the stern to starboard ; and 
when working astern, throw the stern to port. A boat with a 
right-hand propeller turns sharper to port than it will to star- 
board. 

To bring a boat to a full stop when running full speed ahead, 
put the rudder hard to port and at the same time reverse the 
engine to full speed astern; but never expect the boat to work 
astern as fast as forward. 

When coming to a dock on the port side, the reverse motion 
of a right-hand propeller draws the stern in to the dock. 

In making a dock on the starboard side the propeller reversed 
draws the stern out from the dock. 

TWIN SCREW 

In a twin-screw boat it is seldom necessary to work the 
engines full speed and in opposite directions. This should never 
be done unless absolutely necessary, as it subjects the machinery 
and hull to an unusually great strain and generally does more 
or less damage. The boat can be handled by working one engine 
at a time. 

The starboard propeller has the same effect as in a single- 
screw ship, and the port one has the opposite. 

SYSTEM OF BUOYAGE IN UNITED 
STATES WATERS 

Buoys are, as a rule, employed to mark shoals or other 
obstructions, to indicate the approaches to and limits of channels 
or the fairway passage through a channel, and in some cases to 
define anchorage grounds. Buoys originally were either solid 
wooden spars or built up in various shapes of wooden staves, 

28 



like barrels. Wooden spars are still extensively used, particularly 
in inside waters ; but built-up buoys are now constructed of iron 
or steel plates. 

In order to give the proper distinctiveness, buoys are given 
certain characteristic colors and numbers ; and following the 
uniform practice of maritime nations generally, Congress, by 
the Act of September 28, 1850, prescribed that all buoys along the 
coast or in bays, harbors, sounds, or channels, shall be colored 
and numbered, so that passing or entering the bay, harbor or 
channel, red buoys with even numbers shall be passed on the 
starboard, or right hand; black buoys with odd numbers on the 
port, or left hand; buoys with red and black horizontal stripes 
without numbers shall be passed on either hand, and indicate 
rocks, shoals, or other obstructions, with channels on either 
side of them; and buoys in channel ways shall be colored with 
black and white perpendicular stripes, without numbers, and 
may be passed close-to, indicating mid-channels. Buoys to mark 
abrupt turning points in channels or obstructions requiring un- 
usual prominence, are fitted with perches or staves surrnounted 
by balls, cages or other distinctive marks. 

Buoys marking light-vessel stations are placed in close prox- 
imity to the light vessel, are colored in a similar manner, and 
bear the letters LV., with the initials of the station they mark. 
Buoys defining anchorage grounds are painted white, except 
those used for such purposes at a quarantine station, in which 
case they are painted yellow. 

To assist further in distinguishing buoys, the ordinary un- 
lighted types are made in two principal shapes in the portion 
showing above the water-line. Nun buoys are conical and red 
and Can buoys are black. The difference in the shape of these 
two types makes it possible to decide which side they should 
be passed long before the color or number is discernible. The 

29 



numbers and letters placed on all buoys are formed by standard 
stencils, to insure uniformity, and the largest size practicable is 
used, so that these may show as prominently as possible. White 
characters are painted on black buoys and black characters on 
red buoys. 

Buoys are anchored in their positions by various types of 
moorings, depending on the character of the bottom and the 
size and importance of the buoy. 

Buoys may be divided broadly into two general classes, 
lighted and unlighted, of which the latter are in the great ma- 
jority. Unlighted buoys comprise spars, both wooden and iron, 
can, nun, bell j. and whistling buoys, with a few other types for 
special purposes. Lighted buoys are provided with some form 
of gas apparatus and a lantern ; frequently a bell or whistle is 
also attached, in which case they are known as combination 
buoys. 

Wooden spar buoys are usually cedar, juniper, or spruce 
logs, trimmed, shaped and provided with an iron strap and band 
at the lower end for attaching the mooring, which is as a rule 
a heavy stone or concrete block, or iron sinker, sometimes 
shackled directly to the buoy, or to a short piece of chain, as re- 
quired by the depth. Such buoys are among the most economical 
and generally used of all aids, and are particularly employed in 
rivers and harbors. Four sizes or classes are in use, varying in 
length from 50 to 20 feet over all to conform properly to the 
depth of water at the position of the buoy. The weights of 
such buoys vary from 1,500 to 350 tb each. 

Iron spar buoys are built up of iron or steel plates in 
the form of wooden spars, and are particularly valuable where 
severe ice conditions exist, or where the teredo is unusually 
active. They are made in three classes, in lengths of from 
50 to 30 feet over all, weighing from 4,000 to 2,000 tb, 
respectively. 

30 



Cans and nuns are built of iron or steel plates, the former, 
showing a cylindrical and the latter a conical top, and are the 
most extensively used of metal buoys. The interior of the buoy 
is divided into two or more compartments by bulkheads or 
diaphragms, to prevent sinking when damaged. Each kind is 
built in three classes or sizes, and in addition two general types 
are in use, the ordinary type and the tall type, or channel buoys; 
the latter being a modern development of a larger and more 
prominent buoy for use in deeper water. These buoys weigh 
from 8,300 to 700 tb each, according to size, and are generally 
moored by means of a stone or concrete block, or a specially 
designed hemispherical cast-iron sinker, shackled on a length of 
chain about two or three times the depth of water in which the 
buoy is placed. 

Bell buoys have a hemispherical-shaped hull, built of steel 
plates, with flat deck, and carry a structural-steel superstructure 
which supports a bronze bell and usually four iron clappers. 
The motion of the buoy in the sea causes these clappers to strike 
the bell, so that the action is entirely automatic. Although the 
'buoy is quite sensitive and responds to even a very slight 
motion of the waves, the sound may be faint or absent in un- 
usual calms. This type of buoy is especially efficient in harbors 
or inside waters for marking points where a sound signal is 
desired. Bell buoys weigh about 6,900 tb each. 

i Whistling buoys are built of steel plates, and consist of a 
pear-shaped body with the smaller end uppermost, with a long 
fOpen tube on the lower end. This tube extends throughout the 
.length of the buoy, and is closed at the upper end by a head- 
^ plate on which is mounted a check valve and a whistle on the 
f, superstructure of the buoy. The sound is produced by the air 
in the upper portion of the tube, being compressed by the falling 

31 



of the buoy in the waves, its means of escape being through the 
whistle. A fresh supply of air is drawn through the check 
valve as the buoy rises again. Like the bell buoy, the sound 
is automatic, depending solely on the motion of the waves, and 
therefore the whistle may be silent when the sea is very smooth. 
The whistling buoy is most efficient in rough outside waters, 
where a ground swell exists, and is employed for important 
points where a sound signal is considered desirable. The weight 
of the buoy is about 6,500 lb. 

Lighted buoys are a modern invention, having come into 
use within about the last thirty years, and are considered by 
mariners generally as among the most valuable of recent develop- 
ments in coast lighting. The first buoy of this kind was a gas 
buoy established experimentally by its manufacturer in 1881 
near Scotland Lightship, entrance to New York Bay; it was 
officially taken over by the Lighthouse Service in April, 1884. 
Electric buoys, operated by a cable from shore, were established 
in Gedney Channel, New York Bay, in November, 1888, and were 
discontinued in 1903, after many mishaps, due chiefly to break- 
ing of the cable. All of the lighted buoys in service use com- 
pressed gas, either oil gas or acteylene. 

In the types now in use, the gas, at a pressure of about 12 
atmospheres, is contained either directly in the body of the 
buoy or in tanks fitted into compartments of the body, and is 
piped to the lantern at the top of the superstructure. If the 
light is flashing, as is commonly the case, a small pilot-light 
burns continuously and ignites the main burner as gas is ad- 
mitted from the flashing chamber, which is a regulating com- 
partment in the base of the lantern provided with a flexible 
diaphragm and valves for cutting off and opening the flow of 
gas at intervals, the operation being due to the pressure of the 
gas in the reservoirs. The length of the light and dark periods 



2,2 



may be adjusted to produce the desired characteristic, such as 
five seconds light, five seconds dark, etc. Some types burn 
the gas as an ordinary flame, while others make use of an in- 
candescent mantle, which is, however, not wholly satisfactory in 
rough water on account of breakage. 

Gas buoys are made in a number of different sizes, weighing 
from 2,800 to 34,500 tb each, depending on the importance of the 
location, and burn continuously by night and day for intervals 
of a month to a year without recharging. Gas buoys furnish 
valuable marks for approaching entrances, defining ■ channels, 
and marking dangers, and at times may obviate the necessity for 
light vessels or lighthouses on submerged sites, either of which 
would be many times more expensive. There is a constant 
more brilliant lights. 

Many gas buoys are provided with some automatic form 
of sound-producing device, such as a bell or whistle, and in a 
few cases have both a whistle and a submarine bell. These 
operate in the manner heretofore described and are of especial 
demand among mariners for more gas buoys and for buoys with 
value in fog or thick weather, or in case of accidental extinguish- 
ment of the light. 

BUOY COLORS, NUMBERS, AND 
SHAPES 

Red Buoys, — (All types) — In approaching a channel from 
seaward, entering a harbor, or running up a river. 

Red Buoys, with even numbers, will be found on the star- 
board side of the channel and must be left on the starboard 
hand in passing. 

Black Buoys (all types) will be found on the port side of 
the channel and must be left on the port hand in passing. 

33 



(Remember buoys have no port or starboard, but the boat 
has.) 

Red and Black Horizontal Striped Buoys will be found on 
obstructions, with channel-ways on either side of them, and 
may be left on either hand in passing. 

Caution. — When the above buoy is used to mark the begin- 
ning, or the end of a long shoal, care must be taken when 
passing, as the channel on either side will run parallel with the 
shoal; a knowledge of the direction of the shoal is, therefore, 
necessary and the chart should be studied. 

White and Black Perpendicular Striped Buoys will be found 
in mid-channel, and must be passed close-to to avoid danger. 

All other distinguishing marks to buoys will be in addition 
to the foregoing, and may be employed to mark particular spots. 

Perches, with balls, cages, etc., will, when placed on buoys, 
be at turning-points, the color and number indicating on what 
side they shall be passed. 

Different channels in the same bay, sound, river or harbor, 
will be marked, as far as practicable, by different descriptions 
of buoys. Principal channels will be marked by Nun and Can 
buoys; the secondary and minor channels by spar buoys. 

Nun Buoys are red with even numbers, and are usually 
placed on the starboard side of channel and are left on the star- 
board hand in passing in. 

Can Buoys are black with odd numbers, are placed on the 
port side of channels and must be left on the port hand in 
passing in. 

The Nun and Can buoys are used along the coast and at 
times are referred to as sea buoys. 

When buoys are lighted, those with red lights are to be 
left on the starboard hand, and those with white lights on the 
port hand when entering a harbor or channel. 



34 



Day Beacons, stakes and spindles, when placed on sides of 
channels, are colored like buoys, and they are to be left the 
same as buoys. They are usually constructed and distinguished 
with special reference to each locality ; and particularly in regard 
to the background upon which they are projected. 

Bell and whistling buoys are usually placed to mark certain 
points, and their use is explained in the buoy book for the 
district. 

White Buoys are usually employed to mark anchorages, 
dumping grounds, etc., and, as a rule, are explained in the 
United States Coast Pilot. 

Yellow Buoys are sometimes employed by the quarantine 
authorities to mark a station. 

Caution Regarding Buoys. — Buoys are liable to be carried 
away, shifted, capsized, sunk, etc. ; lighted buoys may be ex- 
tinguished, or whistling or bell buoys may not sound, as the 
result of damage by storm, the accumulation of ice, running 
ice, or other natural causes, or collision, or other accidents. 

Whistling and Bell Buoys are sounded only by the action 
of the sea; therefore, in calm weather they are less effective and 
may not be heard. 

A spindle is generally on a rock or shoal which is sub- 
merged. It consists of an iron shaft surmounted by a cask, a 
cone inverted, a double cone, a square cage, or other distinguish- 
ing mark, and is colored. 

Beacons are built on shoals or prominent landmarks, some- 
times of wood, steel, or stone. Sometimes they are surmounted 
by a spindle. They also have distinguishing colors. 

PILOTING 

Piloting in the sense given the word by modern and popular 
usage, is the art of conducting a vessel in channels and harbors 

35 



and along coasts where landmarks and aids to navigation are 
available for fixing the position, and where the depth of water 
and dangers to navigation are such as to require a constant 
watch to be kept upon the vessel's course and frequent changes 
to be made therein. 

The pilot should be provided with the best available chart 
of the locality to be traversed, together with the sailing direc- 
tion and descriptions of aids to navigation, and all of these 
should be corrected from the latest information published in 
^'Notices to Mariners". 

The lead lines should be correctly marked and be at hand. 
As shoal water is entered a man should be stationed and ready 
to throw the lead, or sound. 

This isn't the easiest thing on a boat to do, and should be 
practiced at the proper time, and not wait until close to 
difficulty. 

The compass should be reliable, and must be properly placed. 
Too much care can not be taken in placing a compass. The 
beginner who has no idea of installing a compass had better 
call in someone who has and see how it is done; it is absolutely 
necessary to have the compass correctly placed with the fore- 
and-aft line of the boat, or, in other words, parallel with the 
keel. I knew of a boat bound for Florida, where the owner 
considered it necessary to take on an experienced pilot to make 
an outside run down the coast. Departing from Beaufort Bar 
Buoy about midnight a course was set for Cape Fear Slue, 89 
miles down the coast. At the break of day the pilot found 
himself and boat headed as straight as possible for Bear Inlet, 
about 25 miles West of departure. The compass was found to 
be worthless, owing to poor installation. 

Don't take your compass under your arm, as I knew one 

36 



boat owner to do, and carry it away to have it adjusted. The 
compass has to be properly set and adjusted on the boat where 
it is to be used. Its deviation should be known and a table 
showing the deviation on each heading should be at hand. 

The pilot, in making his plan for entering a strange port, 
should give careful previous study to the chart and should 
select what appears to be the most suitable marks on the chart 
for use. He also should select substitutes for use in case those 
first selected should prove unreliable in not being recognized 
\7ith certainty. Buoys seen at a distance, in approaching a 
channel, are often difficult to place or identify, because all may 
appear equally distant, though in reality far apart. 

Ranges should be noted, if possible, and the lines drawn, 
both for' leading through the best water in channels and also 
for guarding against particular dangers, as rocks, wrecks, etc. 
For the latter purpose, safety bearings should be laid down 
where no suitable ranges can be seen. The courses to be steered, 
in entering, should be laid 'down and distances marked thereon. 
The danger circle should be plotted and regular courses planned, 
instead of running haphazard when trouble may be experienced 
through wild steering at critical points. 

Great care must be taken when entering a port or running 
up a river or channel where Government ranges are placed, 
as these channels are always narrow, and if the two lights, or 
the two structures are allowed to break or open, the margin of 
safe or good water is extremely limited. Such ranges are not 
used, when the waterways are wide and deep. Keeping dead 
on ranges is like looking over a gun barrel and taking a sight 
at a rabbit, only just imagine yourself the rabbit and the two 
sights on the gun are the ranges, lights or structures. 

The chart should be at hand in readiness for reference or 
use in plotting positions. 

11 



The vessel's position should not be allowed to be in doubt 
at any time, even in entering ports considered safe and easy of 
access, and should be constantly checked, continuing to use for 
this purpose those marks concerning v^hich there can be no 
doubt until others gradually and unmistakably declare them- 
selves. 

The vessel should ordinarily steer exact courses and follow 
an exact line, as planned from the chart, changing course at 
precise points, and, where the distances are considerable, her 
position on the line should be checked at frequent intervals, 
with recordings of time. This is desirable even where it may 
seem unnecessary for safety, because if running by the eye alone 
and the vessel's exact position be suddenly required, as in a 
sudden fog or squall, fixing at that particular moment may be 
attended with difficulty. 

The habit of running exact courses with precise changes 
of course will be found useful when it is desired to enter port 
or pass through inclosed waters during fog by means of the 
buoys. Here safety demands that the buoys be made succes- 
sively, to do which requires, if the fog be dense, very accurate 
courses and careful attention to the times, the patent log, and 
the set of the current. Failure to make a buoy as expected 
leaves, as a rule, no safe alternative but to anchor at once, with 
perhaps a consequent serious loss of time. 

It is a useful point to remember that in passing between 
dangers where there are no suitable leading marks, as, for 
instance, between two islands or an island and the main shore, 
with dangers extending from both, a mid-channel course may be 
steered by the eye alone with great accuracy, as the eye is able 
to estimate very closely the direction midway between visible 
objects. 

38 



In piloting among coral reefs or banks a time should be 
chosen when the sun will be astern, conning the vessel from 
aloft or from an elevated position forward. The line between 
the deep water and the edges of the shoals generally shows 
'with surprising clearness. This method is of frequent application 
in the numerous passages of the Florida Keys. 

Changes of course should in general be made in exact 
amounts, naming the new course or the amount of the change 
desired rather than by ordering the helm to be put over and 
t-ien steadying when on the desired heading, with the possibility 
of the attention being diverted and so of forgetting m the mean- 
time as may happen, that the ship is still swinging. The helms- 
man! knowing just what is desired and the amount of the change 
to be made, is thus enabled to act more intelligently and to avoid 
wild steering, which in narrow channels is a very positive source 
of danger. 

Coast piloting involves the same principles and requires that 
the vessel's position be continuously determined or checked as 
the landmarks are passed. On well-surveyed coasts there is a 
crreat advantage in keeping near the land, thus holding on to the 
marks and the soundings, and thereby knowmg at all times the 
position, rather than keeping offshore and losing the marks, 
with the necessity of again making the land from vague posi- 
' tions and perhaps the added inconvenience of fog or bad weather, 
involving a serious loss of time and fuel. 

The route should be planned for normal conditions of 

■ weather with suitable variation where necessary in case of fog 

■ or bad weather, or making points at night. The courses and 
■■ distances, in case of regular runs over the same route being 
' entered in a notebook for ready reference, as well as laid down 
' on the chart. A continuous record of the progress of the boat 

39 



should be kept; the time of all dangers, and of all bearhigs, 
especially the two and four-point bearing, with distance of 
object when abeam. The boat's reckoning is thus continuously 
cared for. The value of thus keeping the reckoning will be 
especiaMy appreciated in case of sudden fog or when making 
points at night. 

Where a coastwise trip is being made and against a strong 
head wind, with trustworthy charts, the shore can be skirted in 
order to avoid the heavier seas and adverse currents that prevail 
farther out. 

To find the course, draw a straight line connecting the point 
of departure and the point of destination ; transfer the direc- 
tion of this line to the center of the nearest compass rose by 
using the parallel ruler, and read the angle that this line (shown 
by the ruler) makes with the true meridian upon the division of 
the compass rose. The course to be steered by the boat's com- 
pass is found by applying to the true course (taken from the 
outer circle of the rose printed on the chart) the value of the 
variation of the compass as found from the lines of equal 
variation given on the chart, and then the value of the devia- 
tion of the compass which is due to the iron, etc., aboard the 
boat, is different for different directions of the boat's heading. 
The use of parallel rulers is being displaced by the modern 
course protractor, which does not require any shuffling about 
the chart, with chances of falling off the direct line before 
reaching a compass ros.e. 

The necessary instruments to have aboard a boat to cor- 
rectly plot a position or to find a course are the following: 

Dividers — This instrument consists of two legs with a move- 
able joint which permits the extremities to be set at any re- 
quired distance from each other, and is used to transfer dis- 
tances which have been taken from the scale of the chart. 

40 



On some charts the scale given is in Statute miles, with 
Nautical miles included, while some show only Nautical miles 
(3^^ of a degree of a great circle of the earth, or 6,080 feet). 
On sailing charts the scale is that of the latitude scale, found 
on the side edge of the chart. 

Parallel rulers are used to transfer the line of direction, 
such as a course or bearings, by placing the edge of the rule 
so that it cuts both places, then slide first one rule and then the 
other to the nearest compass rose printed on the chart. Care 
must be taken while shuffling the rule to hold one down firmly 
so as to retain the direction till the edge cuts the center and 
circumference of the rose. The edge, if the direction has been 
preserved, will indicate the line of direction. When the course 
has been taken from the inside circle, which is magnetic, no 
allowance for variation has to be made, if the course is to be 
magnetic; but if the course is taken from the outside or degree 
circle, an allowance of the variation will have to be made, as 
this circle on all new charts is true North. 

The Course Protractor is an instrument used for measuring 
angles on charts. There are several types on the market 
which range in price from fifty cents up to several dollars, and 
are now generally used and preferred to parallel rulers. When 
using the protractor the meridians marked on the disk are placed, 
or made to line with the meridians on the chart which indicate 
true North, so allowance has to be made to the boat's compass 
for the variation of the locality, which is shown on the com- 
pass rose printed on the chart. If a true course is to be used, 
by shifting the disk of the protractor East or West (according to 
the deviation) on the meridian lines of the chart before swing- 
ing the arm or string, a magnetic course or bearing is given and 

41 



no allowance is necessary to sail a magnetic course. Some pro- 
tractors have more than, one arm, but the one arm instrument 
is usually found on small boats. 

Allowance for deviation has always to be made, whether a 
protractor or parallel rulers are used. Instructions for using 
the course protractor are issued by the manufacturer of the 
instrument, but the general directions are to line the meridians 
on the protractor with those found on the chart and swing 
the arm to the point or object wanted. 

HOW TO USE AND READ CHARTS 

The charts in general use by navigators are constructed on 
the Mercator projection. All the meridians are parallel straight 
lines, and the degrees of longitude are all equal. The parallels 
of latitude are at right angles to the meridians, and the degrees 
of latitude increase in length from the lowest to the highest 
parallel in the same proportion as the degrees of longitude de- 
crease on the globe. The property which makes it so useful for 
purposes of navigation is that the track of a ship, as long as 
she steers the same true course, appears upon the chart as a 
straight line. 

Charts bear three dates which should be understood by 
persons using them: (i) The date (month and year) of the 
edition, printed on the late charts below the border in a central 
position, and on the older ones on the face of the chart; (2) 
the date of the latest correction to the chart plate, printed in the 
lower left-hand corner below the border; (3) the date of issue, 
stamped below the border and just to the left of the subtitle. 

Charts show all necessary corrections as to lights, beacons, 
buoys, and dangers, which have been received to the date of 
issue, being hand corrected since the latest date printed in the 
lower left-hand corner. All small but important corrections 

42 



Occurring subsequent to the date of issue of the chart are pub- 
hshed in Notices to Mariners, and should be appHed by hand to 
the chart immediately after the receipt of the notices. 

The date of the edition of the chart remains unchanged 
until an extensive correction is made on the plate from which 
the chart is printed. The date is then changed and the issue 
is known as a new edition. 

When a correction, not of sufficient importance to require a 
new edition, is made to a chart plate the year, month, and day 
are noted in the lower left-hand corner. 

All the notes on a chart should be read carefully, as in some 
cases they relate to the aids to navigation or to dangers that 
can not be clearly charted. 

The charts are various in character, according to the objects 
to which they are designed to subserve. The most important 
distinctions are the following: 

1. Sailing charts, mostly on a scale of approximately 

which exhibit the approaches to a large extent of 
coast, give the offshore soundings, and enable the navigator to 
identify his position as he approaches from the open sea. 

2. General charts of the coast, on scales of and 

, intended especially for coastwise navigation. 

3. Coast charts, on a scale of , by means of which 
the navigator is enabled to avail himself of the channels for 
entering the larger bays and harbors. 

4. Harbor charts, on larger scales, intended to meet the 
needs of local navigation. 

General ocean charts, as the name implies, cover a large 
territory, and are principally for the use of navigators in the 
open sea, as in making long voyages. This class of chart is 
necessarily upon a small scale, and represents not only the 

43 



character of the ocean bed as thus far delineated by deep-sea 
soundings obtained by vessels of the principal maritime nations, 
but also the shore lines with the most prominent topographical 
features, the principal seaports, the lighthouses which are of 
use in offshore navigation, all dangers in the nature of shoals, 
reefs, and rocks, and the lines of equal magnetic declination 
or variation; compass stars, showing both true and magnetic 
directions in degrees and quarter points, are placed where it is 
thought they will be of the greatest use. On this chart the 
navigator plots his geographical positions as often as they are 
determined, and thus is able to keep as nearly as possible a 
direct course to his port of destination. This chart is kept in 
use until the vessel gets within the limits of the coast chart, 
when it is replaced by the latter. 

Coast charts, both general and special, delineate the coasts 
of all countries, and for each coast are consecutive and take in 
such sections of the coast as will permit of the use of a com- 
paratively large scale. The coast line is accurately delineated, 
as are also the principal topographical features which can be 
used in navigation ; all the lighthouses, with their peculiar charac- 
teristics ; the life-saving stations, and all the features which in 
any way can enable an observer by bearings, or otherwise, to 
determine his position. The soundings are frequent and, in 
general, are run out to the loo-fathom curve. With the aid 
of this coast chart, the navigator pilots his ship along shore 
until within the limits of the chart of the harbor to which he 
is bound, when that replaces it. 

The harbor chart is on a larger scale than the others and 
in greater detail. Every object on shore that can be used in 
piloting the ship in or out of the harbor is delineated in its 
correct position. Where possible, ranges to guide vessels in and 



44 



out are determined and plotted upon the chart; Hghthouses, 
range lights, buoys, beacons, and all daymarks are plotted; the 
positions of landing places, custom-houses, and public buildings 
of which the navigator may have occasion to know are plotted, 
where possible; curves of certain equal depths of water, quaran- 
tine stations and quarantine grounds, men-of-war and merchant 
ships' anchorages are also clearly indicated; the magnetic dec- 
lination or variation is noted on one or more compass roses, 
and in addition the chart contains all necessary data as to the 
date of publication, the date of the latest correction, the charac- 
ter of the soundings, heights, signs, and abbreviations, and all 
necessary tidal information. On these charts, as on coast charts, 
the shore lines are made especially conspicuous, and the topo- 
graphical features represented are such as will be of actual 
value as aids to navigation. 

The general topography is indicated by hachures, contours, 
or sketch-contours. Hachures and sketch-contours indicate 
approximately the relative position of summits and valleys and 
degree of connecting slopes. Whenever the contours are based 
upon an accurate survey of altitudes, a note stating their value 
— contour interval — is found under the title of the chart. 

Symbols denoting vegetation have been designed to present 
pictorially the characteristics of the various kinds of growth. 
For example : The mangrove symbol consists of irregular ribs 
connected with each other and studded with leaves, because the 
mangrove branches take root upon touching the ground and thus 
form a chain of growth. 

The nature of the shore is indicated by various symbols, 
rows of fine dots denoting sandy beach ; small circles denote 
gravel ; irregular shapes denote bowlders. 

Cliffs are indicated by bands of irregular hachures. The 

45 



tl 



symbol is not a ''plan view", but rather a "side elevation", and 
its extent is in proportion to the height of the cliff, not to the 
plan. For example : A perpendicular cliff of lOO feet will be 
shown by a hachured band much wider than one representing 
a cliff of 15 feet with slope. According to principles of "plan" 
drawing the perpendicular cliff could be shown by one line only 
and could not be distinguished from the ordinary shore line. 

Houses, roads, railroads, trails, etc., are shown by symbols, 
and are frequently lettered by descriptive text or proper names. 

Numbers upon the land express the height, above high water, 
in feet. 

Hydrography. — Soundings or depths are not under the rule 
of lettering; they might be found vertical, leaning, or both upon 
one chart so as to distinguish the data furnished by different 
authorities. The U. S. Hydrographic Office shows the soundings 
by means of vertical block figures, considered the clearest type. 
These figures denote fathoms or feet, always stated in the title 
of the chart. 

The extent of fairway and water areas restricting navigation 
to limited draft, is indicated by a system of Hues, called "fathom 
lines". They are lines connecting equal depths, generally show- 
ing the limits of areas of depth of i fathom, 2, 3, 5, 10, and 
multiples of 10 fathoms. With respect to a well-surveyed coast 
only a fractional part of the soundings obtained is shown on 
the chart, a sufffcient number being selected to clearly indicate 
the contour of the bottom. When the bottom is uneven the 
soundings will be found grouped closely together, and when the 
slopes are gradual fewer soundings are given. Each sounding 
represents an actual measure of depth and location at the time 
the survey was made. 

Isolated soundings shoaler than surrounding depth should 

46 



be avoided, as there is always the possibility that the shodiest 
spot may not have been found. 

Shores and shoals where sand and mud prevail, and especially 
bar harbors and the entrances of bays and rivers exposed to 
strong tidal currents and a heavy sea, are subject to continual 
change of a greater or less extent, and important ones may 
have taken place since the date of the last survey. In locali- 
ties which are noted for frequent and radical changes, such as 
the entrance to a number of estuaries on the Atlantic, Gulf, 
and Pacific coasts, notes are printed on the charts calling atten- 
tion to the fact. 

Notes on charts should always be read with care, as they 
may give important information that can not be graphically 
represented. 

It should also be remembered that in coral regions and 
where rocks abound it is always possible that a survey with 
lead and line, however detailed, may have failed to find every 
small obstruction. For these reasons when navigating such 
waters the customary sailing lines and channels should be fol- 
lowed, and those areas avoided where the irregular and sudden 
changes in depth indicate conditions which are associated with 
pinnacle rocks or coral heads. 

Dredged Channels.— These are generally shown on the 
chart by two broken lines to represent the side limits of the 
improvement. Before completion of the project the depth given 
is that shown by the latest survey received from the engineer 
in charge. After completion the depth given is the one pro- 
posed to be maintained by redredging when necessary. 

The actual depth of a completed channel may be greater 
than the charted depth shortly after dredging, and less when 
shoaling occurs as a result of storms or other causes. These 

47 



changes are of too frequent occurrence and uncertain duration 
to chart. Therefore when a vessel's draft approximates the 
charted depth of a dredged channel, the latest information should 
be obtained before entering. 

Danger Curves.— The curves of depth will be found useful 
in giving greater prominence to outlying dangers. It is a good 
plan to trace out with a colored pencil the curve next greater 
than the draft of the vessel using the chart, and regard this as 
a "danger curve", which is not to be crossed without precaution. 

The nature of the bottom is indicated by abbreviations, ex- 
plained under the title of the chart; the depths are given for 
the time of low water and the least depth of all obtained are 
selected, so that the hydrography is represented in its most un- 
favorable condition. Increases of depth at the various stages 
of tide can be ascertained from the tide book and added to the 
figures upon the chart. (See Tides.) 

Reefs, ledges, sunken rocks, rocks awash and foul ground 
are marked by symbols. Discolored water, ripples, currents, and 
weeds are noted by symbols or lettering. Aids to navigation 
are shown by symbols, and by abbreviations, or by as much 
description text as the scale of the chart will admit. The chart 
on the largest scale should always be used on account of the 
greater detail and the greater accuracy with which a position 
may be plotted on it. The value of a chart depends upon the 
character and accuracy of the survey on which it is based, and 
the larger the scale of the chart the more important do these 
become. 

The compass Rose printed on new Government charts 
shows 360 degrees on the outside circle, which is true North. 

The inside is marked in quarter and half points, which are 
magnetic for the locality. Note the variation and date, also 
annual increase. 

48 



Caution in Using Small- Scale Charts. — It is obvious that 
dangers to navigation can not be shown with the same amount 
of detail on small-scale charts as on those of larger scale, there- 
fore in approaching the land or dangerous banks regard should 
be had to the scale of the chart used. A small error in laying 
down a position means only yards on a large-scale chart, 
whereas on a small scale the same amount of displacement 
means large fractions of a mile. 

For the same reason, bearings to near objects should be used 
in preference to objects farther off, although the latter may be 
more prominent, as a small error in bearing or in laying it down 
on the chart has a greater effect in misplacing the position the 
longer the line to be drawn. 

Distortion of Printed Charts.- — The paper on which charts 
are printed has to be dampened. On drying, distortion takes 
place from the inequalities of the paper, which varies with the 
paper and the amount of the original dampening; but it is not 
sufficient to affect ordinary navigation. 

Ranges are shown by lines of dashes and by continuous 
lines, the latter are only shown as far as a ship may follow the 
range in safety. The bearings are given as "true" and are ex- 
pressed, upon later charts, in degrees of a protractor divided 
into 360, starting at North and following the hands of a clock. 
Older charts, still giving bearings by easterly or westerly devia- 
tions from North or South, are being corrected in this respect 
as rapidly as the facilities of the Hydrographic Office permit. 
For example: "N. 15° E." becomes simply "15°/' ^'S. 15° E." 
becomes "165°/' "S. 15° W." becomes "195°/' etc. 

The compasses upon the charts are divided in accord with 
this new system. The outer rose, divided into degrees, is the 
"true" compass, the inner rose, divided into quarter points, is 

49 



the "magnetic", and set upon the variation for the epoch statea 
in the central legend. 

The gradual change in the variation must not be forgotten 
when laying down courses on the chart, or when taking a posi- 
tion by compass bearings. The magnetic compasses -placed on 
the charts become in time in error. On the other hand, the 
true compass rose (outer degree circle) chart is always correct 
and the mariner can always depend upon it. Magnetic bearmgs 
and magnetic courses that are frequently engraved on charts 
also become incorrect as time passes. If they are given as 
true, they never change. 

The date of the variation and the annual changes as given 
on the compass rose, facilitate corrections when the change has 
been considerable. The geographical change in the variation is, 
in some parts of the world, so rapid as to need careful con- 
sideration, requiring a frequent change of the courses. Foij 
instance, in approaching Halifax from Newfoundland the 
variation changes io° in less than 500 miles, and from Buffalo 
to Duluth the variation changes from 6° West to about 9 
East, or a total change of 15°. 

Buoys. — The lights shown by gas buoys and other unwatched 
lights can not be implicitly relied upon; the light may be 
altogether extinguished, or, if intermittent, the apparatus may 
get out of order. 

The buoy symbol is shown "open" in outline for buoys of 
any color other than black; black buoys are shown by solid shapes. 
If the buoy system shown upon the chart consists of black and 
one other color only, the explanation under the title will 
ascribe such color to the "open'' symbol. Thus, upon one chart 
it may be found to denote "red buoy" while upon another chart 
it may be stated as "white". The meaning of the "open" 

50 



symbol varies; the meaning of the "solid" symbol is always 
the same — "black". ' 

Upon any chart containing buoys of various colors be- 
sides black, the color will be found stated by abbreviations or 
in full alongside each symbol. 

The buoy symbol, surmounted by a small dot, surrounded 
by rays, denotes a "light'* buoy ; when surmounted by a crescent 
(points downward) denotes a "whistling" buoy; when sur- 
mounted by a half-disk with dots above the same denotes a 
"bell" buoy. 

A line drawn between the upper and lower points of the 
diamond-shape (longer axis) denotes "vertical stripes" or a 
channel buoy; a line drawn between the side points (shorter 
axis) denotes "a horizontal" striped buoy; both lines used 
denotes a "checked" buoy. 

LIGHTS 

Lights are shown on the chart by heavy solid dots, and 
their characters, or distinctive features, are stated in full or 
abbreviated form; in the latter case an explanation of the 
abbreviations is given under the title of the chart. 

Before coming within range of a light the navigator should 
acquaint himself with the characteristics, so that when the light 
is sighted it will be recognized. The charts, sailing directions, 
and light lists give information as to the color, character, and 
range of visibility of the various lights. Care should be taken 
to note all of these and compare them when the light is seen. 
If the light is of the flashing, revolving, or intermittent variety, 
the duration of its period should be noted to identify it. If 
a fixed light, a method that may be employed to make sure 
that it is not a vessel's light is to descend several feet im- 
mediately after sighting it and observe if it disappears from 

51 



view. A navigation light will usually do so, while a vessel's 
light will not. The reason for this is that navigation lights 
are, as a rule, sufficiently powerful to be seen at the farthest 
point to which the ray can reach without being interrupted by 
the earth's curvature; they are therefore seen the moment 
the ray reaches the observer's eye on deck, but are cut off if 
the light is lowered. A vessel's light, on the other hand, is of 
limited intensity and does not carry beyond a point within 
which it is visible at all heights. 

Care must be taken to avoid being deceived on first sight- 
ing a light. The glare of a powerful light is often seen beyond 
the distance of visibility of its direct rays by the reflection 
downward from particles of mist in the air. The same mist 
may cause a white light to have a reddish tinge, or it may 
obscure a light except within short distances. A fixed light 
when first picked up may appear flashing, as it is seen on the 
crest of a wave and lost in the hollow. 

When looking for a light, the fact must not be forgotten 
that aloft the range of vision is increased. By noting a star 
immediately over the light a bearing may be obtained from the 
compass. All the distances given in the Light Lists, and on 
the charts for visibility of lights, are calculated at a height of 
15 feet for the observer's eye. 

The intrinsic power of a light should always be considered 
when expecting to make it in thick weather. A weak light is 
easily obscured by haze and no dependence can be placed on 
its being seen. 

In approaching a light of varying intensity, such as fixed 
varied by flashes, or alternating white and red, due allowance 
must be made for the inferior brightness of the less powerful 
part of the light. The first-named light may, on account of 

52 



distance or haze, show flashes only, and the true characteristic 
will not be observed until the observer comes within the range 
of the fixed light; similarly, the second named may show as 
occulting white until the observer comes within the range of 
the red light. Also, where there are two fixed lights, one 
white and one red, the latter may be obscured and the station 
may appear to show only a fixed white light. 

At short distances and in clear weather flashing lights may 
show a faint continuous light. 

Period of a flashing or occulting light is the time required 
to go through the full set of changes in the light. This total 
time and the details are stated in the column ''General remarks" 
of the Light List. 

The durations of light and darkness given are those for 
which the apparatus is designed, and may vary slightly with 
irregularities in the working of the apparatus or because the 
apparent duration of a flash may be reduced by great distance 
or haze. 

Visibility of Lights. — The distances given in the text of 
the Light List at which lights may be seen in clear weather 
are computed in nautical miles for a height of the observer's 
eye of 15 feet above the water level. These distances may at 
times be increased by abnormal atmospheric refraction; and, 
of course, may be greatly lessened by unfavorable weather con- 
ditions, due to fog, rain, haze, or smoke. Weak lights and 
colored lights are easily obscured by such conditions. 

Under certain atmospheric conditions, especially with the 
more powerful lights, the glare of the light may be visible 
beyond the computed geographic range of the light. When 
approaching a light, it evidently may be seen earlier from aloft. 

The table below gives the approxinia^te geographic ranges 

53 ^"^^^ 



of visibility for an object which may be seen by an observer 
whose eye is at sea level; in practice, therefore, it is necessary 
to add to these, a distance of visibility corresponding to the 
height of the observer's eye above sea level. In some instances 
the actual or luminous range given in the Light List may be 
less, because the light is not of sufficient power to be seen to 
the limit of the geographic range. 

Distances of Visibility for Objects of Various Elevations 
Above Sea Level 

Example. — Sandy Hook Light seen just at the horizon, 
what, under ordinary conditions of the atmosphere, is its dis- 
tance from the observer? 
Height (according to Light List), 90 feet, 

distance visible (according to table). 10.84 nautical miles. 
Add distance corresponding to height of 

observer's eye above sea level, 15 feet.= 4.43 " " 



Distance of light 15.27 " " 

Example. — Fowey Rocks Light seen just at the horizon, 
what, under ordinary conditions of the atmosphere, is its dis- 
tance from the observer? 
Height (according to Light List Book), 

no feet distance visible (according to 

table.) 11.99 nautical miles. 

Add distance corresponding to height of 

observer's eye above sea level, 15 feet.= 4.43 ** " 



Distance of light will then be 16.42 " " 

Character of Lights 
In order to avoid the likelihood of confusion between lights 
endeavor is made to give the lights distinct characteristics. The 

54 



characteristics of the Hghts are indicated on charts and in the 
Light List by abbreviations as follows : 

F.=:: Fixed ^ A continuous steady light Alt. = Alternating. 

Fl.=:F'lashing ... (a) Showing a single flash at regular Alt. Fl.rrAlternat- 

intervals ing flashing. 

F. Fl. = Fixed (h) A steady light with total eclipses. Alt. F. Fl.=Alter- 

and flashing ... A fixed light varied at regular inter- nating fixed and 

Gp. Fl.r= Group vals by a single flash of greater flashing. 

flashing brilliancy. The flash is_ preceded Alt. Gp. F1.=:A1- 

Occ.= Occulting. . . and followed by a diminution of ternating group 

Gp. Occ. = Group light or an eclipse flashing. 

occulting Showing at regular intervals groups Alt. Occ.=:Alter- 

of flashes nating occult- 

A steady light suddenly and totally ing. 

eclipsed at regular intervals 

A steady light suddenly and totally 
eclipsed by a group of two or more 
eclipses 

A flash is always shorter than the duration of an eclipse. 

An occultation is shorter than or equal to the duration of 
light. 

Lights are characterized as flashing or occulting solely 
according to the relative durations of light and darkness and 
without reference to the type of illuminating apparatus em- 
ployed or relative brilliancy. 

Sector Lights 

Some lights are made to show different colors in different 
sectors within their range. In such lights one color is generally 
used on bearings whence the approach is clear and another 
covers areas where dangers are to be found. By consulting 
the chart or Light List the explanation of the color of the ray 
in which you find yourself is found. 

When running at night the value and aid of the light sec- 
tors should not be overlooked by the mariner. The chart 
always shows the range and bearings, and positions are to be 
had very quickly by using the sector's. But in some conditions 
of the atmosphere, white lights may have a reddish hue, there- 

55 



fore, the mariner should not trust solely to color where sec- 
tors are used, but should verify the position by taking a bearing 
of a light. On either side of the line of demarkation between 
white and red there is always a small sector of uncertain color. 
It should also be remembered that the edges of a sector can 
not be cut off sharply, and, instead of a sudden disappearance, 
the light fades gradually away. 

The plane of reference, for soundings on Hydrographic 
Office Charts, made from United States Government surveys, 
and on Coast and Geodetic Surveys, and on Coast and Geodetic 
Survey charts of the Atlantic Coast of the United States, is 
mean low water. (On the Pacific Coast of the United States 
as far as the Strait of Fuca it is the mean of the lower low 
water; and from Puget Sound to Alaska, the Survey has 
adopted the harmonic or Indian tide plane, which is, roughly, 
that of the lowest low waters observed.) 

Whichever plane of reference may be used for a chart, 
it must be remembered that there are times when the tide falls 
below it. Low water is lower than mean low water about half 
the time, and when a new or full moon occurs at perigee the^ 
low water is lower than the average low water of springs. 

High wind may at times cause the water to fall below the 
plane of reference. 

In Hydrographic Office charts of the Great Lakes, the 
plane of reference is the mean level of the lake in 1847, which 
is 4.7 feet lower than the high water of 1838, the highest water 
recorded; a plane sufficiently low to insure the safe navigation 
of a vessel of less draft than the soundings shown over that 
locality. 

In Lake Survey charts the soundings are referred to a 
plane of refere^^ce which is the mean elevation of the lake 

56 



above mean tide of New York (adjusted levels of 1903). 

Care must be taken to study the notes on the charts and 
compare them with the monthly bulletins issued, which give 
the mean elevation of the lake at the time of issue and the 
state of the water in the lake during the past month and its 
probable state for the coming month, in order that corrections 
can be properly applied to find the proper depth. 

The Sailing Directions can properly be designated as nau- 
tical guide books. The coasts of the world are divided up into 
numerous sections, for each one of which a book of sailing direc- 
tions is prepared. 

These seamen's guide books, when complete and used in 
connection with the corresponding navigational charts, are in- 
tended to give the mariner all the information that he may 
require for safely navigating the part of the world considered, 
and for entering and leaving each harbor or anchorage therein. 
When corrected to date, they give him, in as much detail as 
possible, a knowledge of the prevailing winds and weather for 
each season; of the tides, currents, buoys, lights, and other day 
and night marks, and of proper anchorages. In addition, 
where possible, ranges to be used in entering and leaving ports, 
both by day and night, are described; prominent landmarks and 
other topographical features are noted in detail, and everything 
in the way of an aid to navigation is entered therein. They 
even go so far as to give him information in regard to port 
dues, local regulations of foreign governments, diplomatic 
customs of the local and state authorities, the facilities for 
obtaining provisions, water, and other supplies, and also as 
to making necessary repairs. 

It is impracticable to indicate these important facts on the 
chart, but they are, so far as possible, duly set forth in the Sail-, 
ing Directions.. — ^ 

57 



It often happens that the chart shows several channels 
leading to the same anchorage or through the same strait, all 
of which are apparently safe; but it may be that, owing to 
local peculiarities of tides, or some other similar reason, one 
particular channel is to be preferred; when known, this is ex- 
plained in the Sailing Directions, and the reason given much 
more clearly than could be done graphically on the chart. 

In some localities, for example, in Magellan Strait, an- 
chorages, apparently secure, may be rendered unsafe, in certain 
winds, by "williwaws" caused by the configuration of the sur- 
rounding land ; a knowledge of this fact can not be gained from 
the chart, and yet the safety of the ship may depend upon it. 

Ranges are often mentioned in the Sailing Directions which 
would otherwise not be noticed; cautionary remarks warn the 
navigator of dangerous indrafts, and numerous other examples 
might be given showing the great importance of this publica- 
tion as a navigational instrument. 

In addition to the purely navigational features, the Sailing 
Directions pay particular attention to information in the nature 
of Port Facilities. It is desirable before reaching a port to 
know where pilots can be picked up, the quantity and quality 
of coal, water, and other supplies that can be obtained; what 
repairs can be made ; what harbor regulations are in force, and 
what signals are shown. This information, and much more of 
a like nature, is furnished by the Sailing Directions in descrip- 
tions of ports of any importance. 

Even in those features of the chart to which nothing can 
be added by written description, the latter makes "assurance 
doubly sure" by calling attention to dangers which might be 
overlooked by the navigator, thus diminishing the element of 
chance due to ^^^^ ''personal equation". 

58 



Lights and fog signals are, of course, indicated on the 
charts and described in the Sailing Directions, but this fact in 
no way lessens the value of the Light List as an adjunct to 
those publications. The Light List not only describes the 
characteristics of lights and fog signals, the type and appearance 
of light structures, etc., in much greater detail than the chart 
can usually express, but this information is presented in a 
condensed and tabulated form very convenient for reference. 
It thus materially aids the navigator in identifying unfamiliar 
lights or light stations either by night or day. The Light List 
is revised annually, after comparison with the Light Lists of 
other maritime nations, and is consequently the latest and best 
authority on the subject of lights and fog signals, besides being 
a check on the accuracy of the chart in this respect. 

In order that charts, Sailing Directions, and Light Lists 
may be accurate, it is necessary that they should be kept cor- 
rected up to date from the very latest information obtainable. 

Notices to Mariners 
The Notices to Mariners, which particularly affect the charts 
and sailing directions, are of the highest value to shipping. 
These notices consist of a collection of statements pertaining 
to safe navigation, made up in pamphlet form. They are issued 
weekly by the Hydrographic Office. The statements are notices 
themselves pertaining to every matter which is of importance 
to the seaman and navigator. When a new rock, shoal, or 
other danger is discovered and reported to the Hydrographic 
Office, the information is immediately published, the source 
and its nature being clearly set forth. The same is true of 
the installation of new lights, cWnges in lights, alterations or 
changes in buoyage and other daymaikq in any part of the 
world, wrecks, and all subjects, a knowledge nf which would 

59 






tend to lessen the dangers of navigation. These notices an 
issued in a convenient form for cutting out. When received, 
the immediate duty of the navigator or master is to enter the 
corrections by hand on the charts affected (these charts being 
designated in the notices), and, in addition, to cut out each 
notice and insert it in its proper place in the Sailing Directions. 
The Light List is corrected in the same manner from the 
Notices to Mariners, and a new edition of this book is issued 
annually. 

COMPASS 

The compass is said to have been invented in the early 
part of the fourteenth century by Flavio Goiza. 

Although the early Chinese are credited with using a load- 
stone as a compass, by floating it in water supported on a 
piece of cork, and there are records of it being brought from 
China to Italy by Marco Polo about 1295, there is evidence of 
the compass having been used in Norway previous to 1266, and 
in France and Syria about the year 11 50, so without question 
the compass was an early instrument of navigation which made 
possible the many early discoveries. 

The compass now used by the United States Navy and 
found on most of the modern ships has a card marked with 
32 points and 360 degrees. The card is fixed on a piece of 
steel called the needle, which has been touched by a loadstone 
(magnetic iron ore) and acquires the property, when resting 
on a pivot fixed vertically, of pointing to the North; the other 
points on the dial will, of course, point to their respective parts 
of the horizon. 

This compass card and needle are mounted on a pivot in 
a bowl. The bowl is ^^^ed with alcohol or a special oil, which 
will not freeze '^nd this fluid keeps the card from wabbling 
or movi«6 too quickly. 

60 



On the inside rim of the howl, or card chamher, is a verti- 
cal mark called the luhhcr line, which, on installing the compass, 
is to he carefnlly adjusted to the fore-and-aft line of the ship. 
And, in steering, this mark is held with whatever point wanted 
on the card, as it indicates the course of the ship. 

The circumference of a circle, large or small, is divided 
into 360 equal parts, called degrees, and all angles are measured 
by these degrees. The dial of the compass, therefore, is divided 
into 360 degrees. 

The modern compass dial is marked on the outer circle in 
degrees. The inside of the degree circle is marked off in points. 
There are 32 points on a compass and the space between these 
points is divided into half points on small compasses, and 
usually compasses of 4-inch diameter and larger have quarter 
points marked on the dial. This size is much preferred, as a 
small boat does a lot of dancing around at the best, and a com- 
pass having a dial with less than a 4-inch diameter should 
not be used on any boat. 

If j^ou divide the 360 degrees of the compass card by four 
you have a result of 90, so each quarter of the dial is 90 
degrees, such as North to East, East to South, South to West, 
West to North. These points are called the cardinal points. 
There are 90 degrees between each of these cardinal points, 
equal to 8 points, each point being equal to iij4 degrees. The 
modern method is to circle the degrees always to the right, like 
the travel of the hands of a clock, which has an advantage when 
applying compass en or. You add when it is Easterly, and sub- 
tract from the degrees when Westerly, and forget the idea 
of standing in the center of a compass ^^rd, which of course 
can not be done. 

61 



I 



Midway between each cardinal and intercardinal point ai 
degrees, or 4 points, are the intercardinal points, named accord- 
ing to their positions, thus : Northeast, Southeast, Southwest, 
Northwest. 

Midway between each cardinal and intercardinal points at 
an angular distance of 22^2. degrees or 2 points, is a point 
whose name is made up of a combination of that of the cardinal 
and the intercardinal point — North-Northeast, East-Northeast, 
East-Southeast, South-Southeast, South-Southwest, West-South- 
west, West-Northwest, North-Northwest. 

At an angular distance of i point, or 11^ degrees from 
each cardinal and intercardinal point (and therefore midway 
between it and the 22^ degrees division last described), is a 
point which bears the name of that cardinal or intercardinal 
point, joined by the word "by" to that of the cardinal, in the 
direction of which it lies : North by East, Northeast by North, 
Northeast by East, etc. 

In naming the quarter points, it is evident that each divi- 
sion may be referred to by either of the whole points to which 
it is adjacent, for instance. Northeast by East, ^ North, and 
North-Northeast y^ East would describe the same division. It 
is the custom of ^e United States Navy to name the quarter 
points from North and South, towards East and West, excepting 
the divisions adjacent to a cardinal or intercardinal are always 
referred to as those points, as N. Yz E., N. by E. ^ E., North 
Northeast ^ East, Northeast Vz N. There are, in other words, 
eight points on the dial without any quarter points, and in 
naming quarter points by the new or Navy method these points 
are NE. by N., E ^y N., E. by S., SE. by S., SW. by S., 
W. by S., ^^' ^y N' ai^d NW. by N. 

62 



Boxing the compass is to name the 32 points in rotation, 
with the sun, or clockwise. 

The Thirty-Two Points of the Compass 



North 

North by East 

North, North-East 

North-East by North 

North-East 

North-East by East 

East, North-East 

East by North 

East 

East by South 

East, South-East 



South-East by East 

South-East 

South-East by South 

South, South-East 

Sohth by East 

South 

South by West 

South, South-West 

South- West by South 

South-West 

South-West by West 



West, South-West 
West by South 
West 

West by North 
West, North-West 
North-West by West 
North-West 
North-West by North 
North, North-West 
North by West 



Compass Variation 

The needle of the compass points right at the magnetic 
North pole when not influenced by other attractions, but tnis 
magnetic pole is not the North end of the earth's axis; this axis, 
or geographical pole, being several hundred miles North of the 
magnetic North pole. 

A freely suspended magnetic needle, after coming to rest, 
does not everywhere point to the true North, and the saying 
*'true as the needle to the pole" needs some qualification. There 
is in each hemisphere a magnetic pole, and these poles do not 
coincide in position with the geographical poles. The North 
magnetic pole is in about latitude 70° N., longitude 96° W., and 
the South magnetic pole in about latitude y2>° S., longitude 147° 
E. The directional force of the magnetic needle is influenced 
principally by these magnetic poles, and thus it is that the direc- 
tion assumed by the needle varies at different positions on the 
earth's surface. The direct cause of this variation is not yet 
conclusively established. Man> and various theories have been 
advanced regarding it, some authorities -Qcribing it to influences 
wholly within the earth, others to influences ox^cide the earth, 
while others yet ascribe it to a combination of both, tu^ ^j^^ 



63 



generally held is that the earth may be regarded as a "huge 
mrignet",*to which magnetic condition in combination with other 
influences, within or without, is due the phenomenon known as 
the variation of the needle. Now, at any position on the earth's 
surface the angular difference between the direction assumed by 
the needle, after coming to rest, and the meridian passing 
through the position is termed the variation of the needle for 
that particular position. If, for example, there should be an 
angle of 5° between the direction in which the needle points 
and the true North and South line or meridian, the variation 
would be 5° East or West according as the needle points to the 
right or left of true North. 

This situation varies, at different parts of the world; also 
some lines or places have no variation. 

Having no variation at these places, the magnetic compass 
points to the true or geographical North pole. The variation 
of the compass is not constant, but has an annual change. In 
navigating by compass, it is necessary to know what this varia- 
tion is at different parts ; the charts of the locality show this 
variation, whether Easterly or Westerly, also the yearly increase 
or decrease. Also United States Coast Pilot Book gives varia- 
tions for waters covered. On new Government charts will be 
found a diagram compass, or compass Rose the outside circle 
marked in degrees from o to 360 — this is true North. The inside 
division showing points and quarter points, this circle is mag- 
netic, the inside needle pointing to the magnetic North for 
that locality. The degrees found between the magnetic needle 
and true North of the outer, o^ degree circle, are the degrees 
of variation for the lo'>^^fty, Easterly or Westerly, whichever 
it may be. 

A. previously stated the compass needle always points to 

64 



the magnetic North unless influenced by other attractions. This 
other attraction must receive consideration when using a com- 
pass aboard a boat. This error is called 

Deviation 

Another important factor which the navigator has to con- 
tend with is the deviation found on every ship or boat. This 
compass error is caused by the iron, steel and other magnetic 
elements, such as the iron rails, stanchions, stays, etc. ; elec- 
trical equipment, the engine or parts of the cargo. Keep all 
of the above as far away from the compass as possible. This 
error is not found alike on different courses, because the 
compass card does not turn with the boat. The attraction 
does turn, and assumes new relations on different courses. 
This makes the problem arising from deviation extremely 
troublesome, as it is necessary to ascertain the amount of error 
on each course in order to know what to allow. Placing 
magnets at different points about the compass overcomes this 
attraction, and is called compass adjusting, but a certain amount 
of error always remains. Compass adjusting is a profession in 
itself, and the boatman or boat owner who finds his compass 
off will find money well spent, by calling in the services of a 
professional adjuster. Deviation is also referred to as. East- 
erly or Westerly. 

Leeway 

Leeway is not a compass error, but may be caused by the 
wind being either starboard or port. A vessel sailing with the 
wind abeam will slide off to leeward more or less, and her 
actual course will not be that steered by the boat's compass. 
A good plan to use when possible is to heave the log, then 
bring the line to the center of the compass, and its angle to 
the boat's course will show the amount of leeway. Leeway to 

65 



starboard is the same as Westerly Variation; leeway to port the 
same as Easterly Variation, and the rules for correction are 
made likewise. On power boats leeway as a rule is not con- 
sidered, and the operator can forget this problem of navigation. 

Across the Current 
An allowance has to be made; as an example, a boat mak- 
mg 10 miles an hour, crossing a stream having a 3-mile current 
on the starboard beam, would have to allow a drift to port of 
three miles for every hour run. Providing, of course, there 
was no wmd to port to offset some of the drift. In laying 
down the course, figure as near as possible the time likely to 
make the run; say, 10 hours. 10x3=30, so allow 30 miles to 
the right or left of your point, against the drift or tide. Tide 
or current must be taken into consideration in making runs. 
A 2-mile current means twelve with tide, or about eight against, 
of course taking wind into account. 

Note 
There is only one North Magnetic Pole. Observations have 
mdicated that it is located Northwesterly from Hudson Bay 
on the Western side of the Peninsula of Boothia, in the region 
of the intersection of the parallel of 70° North latitude with 
the meridian of longitude 97° West of Greenwich. There is 
also a South Magnetic Pole, or region over which the South 
end of the magnetic needle points vertically downward. A 
point of this region was located in 1908 by the Antarctic Ex- 
pedition under Lieutenant Shackelton. It is on the Antarctic 
Continent, to the southward of Tasmania, in latitude 72° 25' 
South and longitude 155° 16' East of Greenwich. It has been 
surmised that the magnetic poles of the earth have a progres- 
sive movement with the course of time, but this has not been 
proved. 

66 



Applying Compass Error 

The New Style compass rose (printed on all new charts), 
marked in degrees from o to 360, has been adopted for its 
clearness, simplicity and the precision with which compass errors 
can be applied. When it is used there is no occasion for the 
mariner to imagine himself at the center of the compass card 
and apply his correction differently in each quadrant. There 
is only one rule and, if followed, there need be no further 
thought given the matter, for there will be no mistakes made. 

Rule.— If the compass error is E. or + (plus) the true 
course is greater than the compass course; if it is W. or — 
(minus) the true course is less than the compass course. In 
other words, you add to the needle for Easterly and subtract 
from the needle when Westerly. 

To Make a Compass Course a True Course 
Examples. — (i) Compass error 8° E., compass course 70°; 
the true course is 78°. 

(2) Compass error 6° E., compass course 230° ; the true 
course is 236°. 

To Make a True Course a Compass Course 

(3) Compass error 11° E., the true course 135°; compass 
course 124°. 

(4) Compass error 17° E., true course 6° ; compass course 
6° — 17° equals — 11° equals 349°. 

When Error is Westerly 

(5) Compass error g° W., compass course 325°; true course 

316°. 

(6) Compass error 13° W., true course 142°; compass 

course 155°. 

This compass error is made up of two things, variation and 

67 



deviation. Broadly speaking variation is the effect of the earth's 
magnetic force upon the compass needle, while deviation is the 
effect upon that same needle of iron built into the ship or 
carried as cargo. 

When the conditions are favorable the most accurate way of 
obtaining the compas error is by observation with the compass 
itself upon the course that is being steered. When this is done 
the true course is obtained by the one operation of applying the 
compass error. When this can not be done the compass error 
is obtained by combining the deviation, obtained from a calculated 
table of deviations, with the local variation of the place. The 
local variation is shown on the chart used. 

At times the variation may be Westerly and the deviation 
Easterly; in that case, subtract the smaller from the greater and 
apply. iVt times the errors counteract one another, one being 5 
degrees Easterly and one 5 degrees Westerly. Then again you 
may have 5 degrees of Westerly variation and 5 degrees West- 
erly deviation and will have to allow for a total of 10 degrees 
Westerly attraction. 

The navigator must not forget when taking, or making up, 
his own courses that if he uses the inside circle of the rose 
(or compass dial printed on the chart) that this inside circle 
is magnetic, and no allowance is necessary for variation; also 
when courses are given as magnetic. 

Finding the Compass Deviation 

A knowledge of the compass only is necessary. Finding the 
compass error by range bearings is much easier than by azimuths 
of the sun or stars. It is customary, if the error is found to be 
small, to make up a steering card and keep it at hand. If the 
error is found to be great, you will feel more comfortable to 

68 



have a competent man adjust it and make up a card for any 
small errors that remain. 

Before swinging the boat, see that the lubber line on the 
compass is exactly fore and aft and that she is on an even 
keel. Then remove all metal from the vicinity of the compass 
that does not belong there permanently. Awnings and other 
things must -be remembered. One kind of iron at 6 feet will 
affect the compass as much, perhaps, as another kind at 5 feet. 
It is pretty sure that anything at 7 or 8 feet is harmless. All 
this having been attended to, select the best range available, 
that is, choose two permanently fixed objects as far apart as 
possible ; a beacon and a lighthouse, or tower, that is marked ac- 
curately on the chart. I would not be so willing to trust two 
buoys unless they were known to be accurate, like a buoy 
marking a danger, or a bell on the edge of a shoal. Large sea- 
ports will always have the buoys right, unless some unusual 
accident has shifted them. Little shallow harbors and those 
with shifting sandbars can not be trusted. Two range lights, 
such as are placed by the Government as channel ranges, are 
sure to be accurate and should be used if possible. 

Having decided on a range, . any point of the compass will 
do, but I think we would all prefer North or South. Get out 
your chart and rule a line through the two marks and with your 
parallel rule find the exact magnetic range. Then prepare your 
card with the whole points of the compass. In one column, 
write over the top, "Ship's Head," next to that "Range Bearing," 
then "Deviation," and the last column "Course Made Good," 
being careful to keep each on its proper line. When using it, 
look in the Made Good column for the course you want, and 
then look in the Ship's Head column for the course to steer to 
make that course. 



69 



How you will turn the boat will depend on the weather and 
the conveniences at hand. On a calm day, in a good harbor, you 
can pull her around with a dinghy or a small launch. If there 
is a current, you may be able to anchor across tide and pay out 
chain until she rides to a stern kedge anchor. Then haul in 
the chain and pay out on the kedge until she rides to her 
chain, bow on. She would need a kedge out in any case to 
check her on each point, long enough to allow the compass to 
settle and record the bearing. If you swing her from, say. 
North to South with no deviation, you need not bother any 
more, for there is none. 

It must be understood that deviation is always for the ship^s 
head. Be sure to be far enough from the mark you take aim 
over that the diameter of the circle she swings in will not change 
the range bearing. Get as far away as you can — a mile is little 
enough if convenient, two miles is better unless the boat is 
quite small.. In any case swing in as small a circle as you can. 
In the case of a power boat you can sail over the line on all 
courses, and take the range bearings as you cross. 

We will suppose your range turned out to be N.E. magnetic. 
We will begin by placing the boat directly on that point, bringing 
the bow and the two marks on one line. If the range bears 
N.E. by the boat's compass, there is no error on that point. 
Now put her on the next point, and so on around the com- 
pass. If the range still remains N.E. by the compass on 
all points, there is no error. When determining the error, 
it is easy to make a mistake; it is so natural, if the range 
changes to the Eastward, to think the deviation is Easterly, 
when the reverse is the fact. If you will think a moment, 
the range itself can not alter. If the range becomes East- 
erly, it is bacause the compass needle has been forced 
WESTERLY, leaving the range to the Eastward of the correct 

70 



magnetic bearing. Therefore, if your point moves to the right 
of the range, the deviation is Easterly; if to left, Westerly. 
Or to reverse : if the range changes to the Westward or left of 
N.E., deviation Easterly; to right, deviation Westerly. Study 
diagrams. 

When the boat is placed on N.E., if you find the range to 
be N.E. ^ E., you have ^ point of Westerly deviation. The 
course made good will be N.E. ^^ N. Each time you check 
the boat, write the range bearing on the card on the same 
line next to the Ship's Head column. Also on the same line, 
the Deviation and Course Made Good, which are to be worked 
out after all the rest is finished. 



N.E. 


N.E.J4E. 


^ pt. W. 


N.E. by N. 2° N. 


N.E. by N. 


N.E.2°E. 


N.byW. 


N.N.E. 


N.N.E. 


N.E. 


N.N.W. 


N. by E. 


N. by E. 


N.E. 


N.W. by N. 


2° N. North 


North 


N.E. 


N.W.I/4N. 


2° W. 


N. by W. 


N.E 


W.^N. 





N.N.W. 


N.E. 


2°E. 





N.W. by N. 


N.E.2°N. 


V4 pt. E. 





N.W. 


N.E.I/4N. 


V2 pt. E. 





West 


N.E.i/^N. 


N.E.^^N. 





Fixing a Position 

The most accurate method available to the navigator of fix- 
ing a position relative to the shore is by plotting with a pro- 
tractor sextant angles between well-defined objects on the chart; 
this method is based on the *'three-point problem'* of geometry. 

For its successful employment it is necessary: First, that 
the three objects be well chosen; and, second, that the observer 
be skilful and rapid in his use of the sextant. The latter is 
only a matter of practice. 

71 



I 



The three-arm protractor consists of a graduated circle 
with one fixed and two movable radial arms. The zero of the 
graduation is at the fixed arm and by turning the movable arms 
each one can be set at any desired angle with reference to the 
fixed arm. 

To plot a position, the two angles observed between the 
three selected objects are set on the instrument, which is then 
moved over the chart until the three beveled edges in case of 
a metal instrument, or the radial lines in the case of a trans- 
parent or celluloid instrument, pass respectively and simultane- 
ously through the three objects. The center of the instrument 
will then mark the ship's position, which may be pricked on the 
chart or marked with a pencil point through the center hole. 

This method gives the m.ost accurate results of any and, 
because of its precision, is largely employed in surveying. It 
is especially valuable in navigation, particularly when the objects 
are very far distant, because it is not subject to errors arising 
from imperfect knowledge of the compass error, improper 
logging, or the effects of currents. In war time, when the com- 
pass may be knocked away or rifle fire make it undesirable to 
expose the person more than necessary, a sextant offers great 
advantages, as angles can be obtained at any point where the 
objects are visible. This contingency makes it especially desira- 
ble that all officers on board our fighting ships should become 
expert in this method of fixing a ship's position. In many 
narrow waters, also, where the objects may yet be at some dis- 
tance, as in coral harbors or narrow passages among mud banks, 
navigation by. sextant and protractor is invaluable, as a true 
position can, in general, be obtained only by its means. 

Fixing a -Position by Cross Bearings and Other Methods 
A navigator in sight of land whose position is shown upon 



the chart may also locate the boat's position by several methods, 
without the use of a sextant. 

The best method to locate the boat's position when sailing 
within sight of known points of land or lights, is that of cross 
bearings. 

Cross bearings require two objects, and there ought to 
be from 45 degrees to 130 degrees between these objects to get 
a correct position; First, note course being steered, then take 
the bearings of points or lights selected, correct the bearings for 
deviation, then with parallel rules carry the bearing of one 
object from the compass rose (printed on chart) to the object 
itself; draw a pencil line on the chart according to the bearing. 
Do the same from the second light (point or object) and the 
point where the lines cross will be the position of the ship. 

When possible, a third object should be also used, and its 
bearings taken, as it affords a valuable check-up, as the three 
lines should intersect at the same point, or the position; if 
they don*t intersect, the error is in the observation, or the 
compass, or the plotting. All compass bearings are, of course, 
dependent upon the accuracy of the compass, also upon the 
correctness -and use of the local variation. 

RANGES TAKEN FROM SHORE 

A most accurate and valuable line of position is obtained 
coming in line with a lighthouse or some known point; such a 
range, of course, is free from all compass errors, and should 
be used whenever there is an opportunity. 

by noting, when possible, two known and well-situated objects 
which can be brought to range, that is, one back of the 
other in a line of sight from the boat. For instance, a church 
spire, stack, or water tower which is shown on the chart, 

When sailing in sight of land a boat's position can be 

:3 



nxed by using angle bearings. There are many methods more 
or less confusmg and somewhat complicated. The commonest 
form of th,s problem and the one most used is called the Four 
pomt or Bow and Beam Bearing. The first bearing is taken 
when the object is broad on the bow, which is 4 points or 45 
degrees from ahead. The second bearing is taken when the 
object xs abeam, which is 8 points or 90 degrees from ahead. 
The distance at the second bearing and the distance of the 
object abeam are the same, and are equal to the run between 
he beanngs tlius taken. The method of obtaining position by 
two beanngs of the same object is one of great value, by reason 
of the fact that it , is frequently necessary to locate the boat 
when there is but one landmark in sight. Careful navigators 
seldom, If ever, miss the opportunity for a bow and beam bear- 
ing m passing a lighthouse or other well-plotted object It 
mvolves little or no trouble and always gives a feeling of added 
security, however little the position may be in doubt. 

The objection to using the above when passing a dangerous 
point IS that you are abeam of your object before you learn the 
distance off. 

Two AND Four Point Rule 
By taking the first bearing when the object is 2 points off 
the bow (or 221^ degrees), and a second bearing taken when 
the object is 4 points off the bow (or 45 degrees), seven-tenths 
of the run between these two bearings will be the distance from 
the object being passed. This is called "doubling the angle on 
Oie bow , two and four point" or the "seven-tenths" rule 
There is an advantage in using the "two and four point bearings" 
over the "bow and beam bearings", as you find the probable 
distance that the object will be passed before it is abeam. 

74 



Still a better method is to take the first bearing at 26y2 degrees 
from ahead and the second at 45 degrees. 

When the first bearing is taken at 26^ degrees from ahead 
and the second 45 degrees, the distance at which the object will 
be passed abeam will equal the run between bearings. 

If about to pass an object, abreast of which there is a danger, 
a familiar example of which is when a lighthouse marks a point 
ofif which are rocks or shoals, a good assurance of clearness 
should be obtained before bringing it abeam, either by doubling 
the angle on the bow, or by using the 26^ degrees — ^45 degrees 
bearing. The latter has the advantage over the former if the 
object is sighted in time to permit of its use, as it may be 
assumed that the 45 degrees (bow) bearing will always be ob- 
served in any event, and this gives the distance abeam directly. 

It must be remembered that, however convenient, the fix 
obtained by two bearings of the same object will be in error 
unless the course and distance are correctly estimated, the course 
made good and the distance over the ground being required. 
Difficulty will occur in estimating the exact course when there is 
bad steering, a cross current, or when a boat is making leeway. 
Errors in the allowed run will arise when she is being set back 
or ahead by a current or when the logging is inaccurate. 

Boats not equipped with a patent log must estimate the 
distance covered, by the usual speed of the boat, allowing, of 
course, for head winds, tide, etc. 

Easy Rule. — By taking a bearing of any known fixed object, 
the boat's position is found by taking a bearing at 2-^ or 4 
points off the course, then take another when the first has 
doubled on the object. The distance the boat has traveled will 
be her distance from the object at the second bearing. 

75 



FINDING DISTANCE OF ANY 
FIXED OBIECT 

When a light is made at night, it is important that the dis- 
stance off be known as soon as possible. Too frequently the 
distance is judged or more properly guessed, and sometimes 
leads to disaster. It is often of equal importance to get the 
distance off of a lighthouse, point or other object during the day. 

The method called the "four point bearing", is generally 
known to seamen and it has only one objection, that is, it gives 
the distance off when nearest the danger. However, there are 
many opportunities for its use when the boat is known to be 
outside the danger. 

As an example, suppose the course is N. by E. and a light 
is made bearing N.N.W. which is 3 points on the port bow. 
How far off will the boat pass the light? In the Light List 
book, it is found that the light is visible 19 miles on a clear 
night. Enter the table shown in this work with 19 miles and 
3 points and it will be found that the boat will be 10.6 miles 
off when the light is abeam. Because of the continuous and 
uncertain changes of the atmosphere, this method can only be 
considered approximate; but will serve as a precaution. If the 
weather is such that the light is visible less than 19 miles, the 
boat will pass nearer the light, while if the distance the light 
is seen is more than 19 miles, the boat will pass the light at a 
greater distance. Continuing this course, note the reading of 
the log when the light bears N.W. by N., which will be four 
points on the bow. When the light is abeam note the reading 
of the log again. In this case it is found that the boat ran 
10.6 miles, which was the distance off when the light was 
abeam. When the hght was abeam, a sounding should be 
obtained and the depth compared with that on the chart. This 

76 



fixes the position of the boat with absolute certainty. Con- 
tinuing on this course, note the log when the light bears S.W. 
by W., or four points abaft the beam. If the distance then run 
is less than 10.6 miles it is evident that a current, change in the 
deviation, or some other influence is setting the boat to port 
of her course. On the other hand, if the distance run is 
greater than 10.6 miles, she is being set to starboard of her 
course. 

The only object in taking the bearing abaft the beam is 
to learn if the boat is making her course good, and if she is 
the distance must be 10.6 miles or very close to it. When the 
distances off of lights are obtained, it must be remembered that 
sometimes lighthouses are well inland and the position of the 
light on the chart should be noticed. Also the least distance 
the boat can pass the light in safety. 

Sometimes a light is made unexpectedly and it is not certain 
that the boat can stand on that course without danger. The 
light can be brought abeam and kept there until the original 
course is reached, when she will have circled part way around 
the light and clear any possible danger. 

As an example, suppose the course to be N. >^ W. and 
Cape Canaveral Light is made bearing N.N.W. The chart 
shows that the boat is standing into danger, and if the light is 
brought abeam or a little abaft it at once, the boat will be 
standing offshore and out of danger. The course is altered as 
often as necessary to keep the light nearly abeam until she has 
the light abeam and heading N. ^ W. when she will be out of 
danger and may continue on her course. If in a case of this 
kind it is desired to know the distance of the light at once, 
bring it abeam, note the course and keep it until the bearing has 
changed to one point abaft the beam. The distance off at the 
time of the second bearing will be five times the distance run. 

11 



In this case, say the boat ran 34 miles (changing the bearing one 
point), 3.4x5 = 17.0 miles, the distance off at time of second 
bearing, which according to the chart is a safe distance. 

When sailing along high land, the heights of certain peaks 
are given on the chart, and the distance off may be accurately 
determined with the sextant without any great amount of labor. 

Practical Table for Finding the Distance Off a Vessel Will 
Pass Any Light 

Example : A light is visible 17 miles, and is made 3 points 
on the bow. How far oft* will she pass the light, if course is 
not changed? Under 3 points and opposite 17 miles is the dis- 
tance — 9.4 miles. 

Table of Elevations with Their Distances of Visibility 



5 


2'.55 


70 


9'.56 


10 


3.61 


75 


9.90 


15 


4.43 


80 


10.22 


20 


5. II 


85 


10.54 


25 


5.71 


90 


10.84 


30 


6.26 


95 


II .14 


35 


6.76 


100 


II 43 


40 


7 -^^ 


no 


11.99 


45 


7 -(^7 


120 


12.52 


50 


8.08 


130 


13.03 


55 


8.48 


140 


13.52 


60 


8.85 


150 


14.00 


65 


9.21 


160 


14.46 



Example: Sandy Hook light, height 90 feet, just visible. 
Height of eye aboard the boat 20 feet. 



78 



Tabular number for 90 feet 10' .84 

" 20 " + 5. II 

Distance off the light = 15-95 

This table gives the approximate distance a boat may be 
away from a light or object, in clear weather. 

FOG SIGNALS 

When running in a fog the mariner should acquaint himself 
with the characteristics of fog signals for the locality he may 
be in, whether a bell, horn or siren. A bell is always struck at 
timed intervals, and a distinction as to the light is made by 
knowing the intervals and character of the strokes. This also 
applies when the light is equipped with a horn or siren which 
are all timed as to their sounds, the Light List for the locality 
giving full particulars. When running in shallow water and 
where there are no fog signals, soundings taken by the hand 
lead should be made every few yards, and of course the boat's 
speed should be at its slowest. Soundings when taken in suc- 
cession for a short period of time and set down on paper as 
they are taken, are of great service to fix a position if the paper 
with the marks is placed on the chart and shifted until sound- 
ings of about the same depth are located on the chart. ^ The 
boat's heading, of course, must be considered when shifting 
the paper about, in order to move the paper in the same direc- 
tion as the boat is sailing. The lead is really the best guide 
the mariner has in a fog, as it is always true, while sound 
signals have many freaks and whims and can not altogether be 
relied upon. 

Sound is conveyed in a very capricious way through the 
atmosphere. Apart from the influence of the wind large areas 
of silence have been found in different directions and at dif- 

79 



ferent distances from the origin of sound, even in clear weather, 
therefore, too much confidence should not be felt as to hearing 
a fog signal. The apparatus, moreover, for sounding the 
signal often requires some time before it is in readiness to act. 
A fog often creeps imperceptibly toward the land and is not 
observed by the lighthouse people until upon them; a ship may 
have been for many hours in it and approaching the land in 
confidence, depending on the signal which is not sounded. 
When sound travels against the wind it may be thrown upward ; 
a man aloft might hear it, though inaudible on deck. 

Taken together these facts should induce the utmost cau- 
tion in approaching the land in fogs. The lead is generally the 
only safe guide and should be faithfully used. Therefore, the 
mariner should not assume — 

First. That he is out of ordinary hearing distance because 
he fails to hear the sound. 

Second. That because he hears a fog signal faintly, that he 
is at a great distance from it. 

Third. That he is near it because he hears the sound 
plainly. 

Fourth. That the distance from and the intensity of the 
sound on any one occasion is a guide to him for any future 
occasion. 

Fifth. That the fog signal has ceased sounding because he 
does not hear it even when in close proximity. 

That sound waves do not travel as far or as fast during 
foggy weather as they do when fine and clear, is due to the 
greater density of the atmosphere during thick weather, and is 
a fact that no seaman is in ignorance of. 

Supposing the weather to be thick, but dead calm, there are 
reasonable distances at which the sound of certain fog signal 

80 



apparatus would be expected to reach the ear; but no sound 
is heard. However, another vessel may be a half-mile or even 
a mile farther off and those on board hear the sound distinctly, 
a circumstance that is not at all uncommon. In running for 
a point that is directly ahead, the sound of the fog signal will 
be heard and then lost, and afterwards again heard and so on, 
and during the time the signal will be in proper operation. And 
in running so as to pass the signal station a certain distance 
off, the sound is often heard when the station is three or four 
points on the bow and not heard when the station is abeam 
the point to which the passing ship approaches nearest to it; 
but heard again some time after passing the station. 

Every seaman knows that the direction from which the 
sound of a fog signal comes can not be located with any degree 
of certainty unless the sound-producing device is quite close. 
In fact, there are times when the sound apparently comes from 
points of the compass directly opposite to each other. It seems 
reasonable, in this case, to suppose one of these sounds to be 
an echo of the original, but then there comes the difficulty of 
determining the original. Then again, instead of one of the 
sounds being an echo, they may be the fog signals of two dif- 
ferent ships. 

While navigators are quite familiar with the above phe- 
nomena, no theory has ever been advanced and accepted as a 
proper explanation. 

A great number of descriptions and diagrams of sound waves 
have been examined, and as none can be found to satisfy the 
above conditions for explanatory purposes, it indicates that this 
very important branch of the subject has escaped the notice of 
those eminent scientists who investigate matters of this nature, 
which well deserves their attention. The only theory that seems 

81 



to account for these so-called mysteries of sound, is that the 
sound waves increase in size as the distance from the source 
becomes greater until they become huge waves and pass over 
a ship that happens to be in that unfortunate position and 
descend so that those on board the ship at the greater distance 
would hear the sound. 

It then appears that a ship running for a fog signal station 
that is directly ahead must pick up and lose the sound, as the 
signal can not be heard when the sound waves are passing over 
the ship. 

The same theory may be applied to the case of a ship having 
the fog signal station on her bow and passing it not at a great 
distance. 

It has been noticed that as soon as a fog signal is heard 
sufficiently distinct to determine the interval of the blast and 
silence, and to locate the direction from which the sound comes, 
the source of the sound is not far off. 

The only way to distinguish an echo from a fog signal 
is not to sound the signal with a uniform blast. Blow a very 
long or short blast occasionally. If a long blast is given and 
a short one is heard, or a short one is given and a long one 
heard, it is quite evident that the sound is not an echo. How- 
ever, as a matter of safety and precaution, these sounds should 
not be considered as echoes at any time, as there are too many 
opportunities for fatal error. An echo will be heard all the 
time the same, while a fog signal will seem nearer or farther 
away at each blast. 

It then follows that no dependence can be placed in fog 
signals so far as hearing their sounds any great distance, and 
when heard, it is not known whether they are near or not 
and the direction from which the sound comes can not be de- 
termined by the ear. 

82 



Caution Regarding Fog Signals 
Mariners are cautioned that, while every endeavor will be 
made to start fog signals as soon as possible after signs of fog 
have been observed they should not, when approaching the land 
in a fog, rely implicity upon these fog signals, but should 
always use the lead, which in most cases will give sufficient 
warning. A fog often creeps imperceptibly toward the land 
and a vessel may have been in it some time before it is observed 
at a lighthouse. As sound is conveyed irregularly through the 
atmosphere, mariners are strongly cautioned that they must not 
place dependence on judging their distance from a fog signal 
by the power of the sound. Under certain conditions of the 
atmosphere the sound may be lost a short distance from the 
station, as there may be silent areas or zones, or the sound 
may carry much farther in one direction than in another, and 
these conditions may vary in the same locality within short 
intervals of time. Mariners must never assume that the fog 
signal is not in operation because they do not hear it even when 
in close proximity. The above applies particularly to fog signals 
sounded in air, as steam or air whistles, sirens, horns, or 
ordinary bells. Attention should be given to observing a fog 
signal in positions where the noises of the ship are least likely 
to interfere with the hearing, as experience shows that though 
such a signal may not be heard from the deck or bridge when 
the engines are running it may be heard when the ship is 
stopped or from a quiet position; it may sometimes be heard 
from aloft, though not on deck. 

SUBMARINE BELLS 

Submarine Bells have an effective range of audibility greater 
than signals sounded in air, and a vessel equipped with receiv- 
ing apparatus can determine the approximate bearing of the 

83 



signal. These signals can be heard also on vessels not equipp 
with receiving apparatus by observers below the water-line, but 
a bearing of the signal can not then be readily determined, 



VELOCITY OF SOUND 



I 



Til miles for intervals from one to twenty seconds, at average 
Summer temperature 



I 

2 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 



.21 

.42 
^63 
.85 
1.06 
1.27 
1.48 
1.70 
I.9I 
2.12 



II 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18 

19 
20 



2.33 
2.54 
2.75 
2.96 
3.18 
3.40 
3.61 
3.82 

4.03 
4.24 



In feet per second at different temperatures, enabling to find 

distance by sound 

o 1084 .60 

10 1089 70 

20 1094 80 

30 1099 90 

40 I 104 100 

50 I 109 212 

This table will be found accurate for calm weather, and 

useful in determining distance by the time intervals between 

visible phenomena, such as flash of a gun or vapor from a 

whistle, etc., and the audible report or blast. The table can 

also be used to find the distance of storms. 

THE TIDES 

In obedience to the laws of gravitation the sun and the moon 



1 1 14 
I119 
1 124 
1 129 

1134 
Boiling Pt. 



84 



each exert an attractive influence upon the earth. Although the 
sun's mass is so very much greater than that of the moon — 
being twenty-eight million times as great — yet the effect of the 
tide attraction of the sun is only seven-sixteenths "that of the 
moon. One reason for this is that the sun is nearly 400 times 
further off than the moon. The effect of this attraction is seen 
in the ocean tides. The v^^ater is drawn, or pulled out, as it 
were, towards the attracting bodies. When the sun and moon 
are acting on the same side of the earth, the combined attrac- 
tion produces the greatest possible rise of water, known as 
spring tides. When the sun and moon are pulling in opposite 
directions, neap tides are produced. Owning to the revolution of 
the earth on its axis in 24 hours, the tidal wave travels once 
around the earth in that time. And since the tidal wave is 
double — there being two points of high water — each seacoast has 
high tide twice a day. But as the moon revolves around the 
earth it takes 54 minutes longer for a particular place to be 
brought opposite the moon again. Hence the tides are 54 
minutes later every day. 

Along the Atlantic Coast the rise and fall has several 
ranges. As an example Key West, Fla., has about 14 inches 
between high and low water, some of the Florida Keys about 
3^ feet rise. Fernandina, Fla., has a rise of 5 feet 9 inches. 
Port Royal Sound, Ga., has a rise and fall of about 7 feet. At 
Charleston, S. C, the rise and fall is about 5 feet. Cape Hat- 
teras has about 3^^ feet rise and fall. Sandy Hook, about 45^ feet 
while at Montauk Point the range of tide is only about 2 feet. 
The Bay of Fundy has the biggest ranges of tides along the 
Atlantic Coast, some places having a mean rise of 44 feet 2 inches 
and a spring tide of over 50 feet. A careful study of the 
Government Tide Book is really surprising with the tide ranges 
for different points. 

85 



in addition to the forward and back movement of the water 
in wind or tidal waves, each ocean is traversed by a system of 
currents, or continuous movement of the water in the same 
direction. Several causes combine to produce these continuous 
currents; the principal cause, however, is the inequality in the 
density of the water in different parts of the sea, arising from 
different temperature and saltness. 

GULF STREAM 

The direction in which ocean currents flow is greatly modi- 
fied by the rotation of the earth, the configuration of the coast 
and sea bottom and by prevailing winds. The great current 
known as the Gulf Stream has a wonderful influence upon the 
climate and commerce of America and Europe. The waters 
of this current have a high temperature, through having per- 
formed a long tropical journey across the Atlantic and along 
the coasts of South and Central America. In the Straits of 
Florida the Gulf Stream is 32 miles wide and has a velocity of 
four miles an hour. The temperature here is 82°. The Gulf 
Stream flows Northeast, but is separated from the coast of the 
United States by a colder current from the North. 

HIGH AND LOW WATER 

A knowledge of the times of high and low water and of 
the amount of vertical rise and fall of the tide is of great 
importance in the case of vessels entering or leaving port, 
especially when the channel depths are less than or near. their 
draft. Such knowledge is also useful at times to vessels run- 
ning close along a coast in enabling them to anticipate the effect 
of the tidal currents in setting them on or off shore. This is 
especially important in fog or thick weather. 

Tidal Streams. — In navigating coasts where the tidal range 

86 



is considerable, especial caution is necessary. It should be re- 
membered that there are indrafts to all bays and bights, although 
the general run of the stream may be parallel with the shore. 

The turn of the tidal stream offshore is seldom coincident 
with the time of high and low water on the shore. In some 
channels the tidal stream may overrun the turn of the vertical 
movement of the tide by three hours, forming what is usually 
known as tide and half tide, the effect of which is that at high 
and low water by the shore the stream is running at its greatest 
velocity. 

The effect of the tidal wave in causing currents may be 
illustrated by two simple cases : 

(i) Where there is a small tidal basin connected with the 
sea by a large opening. 

(2) Where there is a large tidal basin connected with the 
sea by a small opening. 

In the first case the velocity of the current in the opening 
will have its maximum value when the height of the tide within 
is changing most rapidly, i. e., at a time about midway between 
high and low water. The water in the basin keeps at approxi- 
mately the same level as the water outside. The flood stream 
corresponds with the rising and the ebb with the falling of the 
tide. 

In the second case the velocity of the current in the opening 
will have its maximum value when it is high water or low water 
"vithout, for then there is the greatest head of water for pro 
ducing motion. The flood stream begins about three hours 
after low water, and the ebb stream about three hours after 
high water, slack water thus occurring about midway between 
the tides. 

Along most shores not much affected by bays, tidal rivers, 

87 



etc., the curreiit usually turns soon after high water and low 
water. 

The swiftest current in straight portions of tidal rivers is 
usually in the middle of the stream, but in curved portions the 
most rapid current is toward the outer edge of the curve, and 
here the water will be deepest. The pilot rule for best water 
is to follow the ebb-tide reaches. 

Countercurrents . and eddies may occur near the shores of 
straits, especially in bights and near points. A knowledge of 
them is useful in order that they may be taken advantage of or 
avoided. 

A swift current often occurs in the narrow passage con- 
necting two large bodies of water, owing to their considerable 
difference of level at the same instant. The several passages 
between Vineyard Sound and Buzzards Bay are cases in point. 
In the Woods Hole passage the maximum strength of the tidal 
streams occur near high and low water. 

Tide Rips and Swirls occur in places where strong currents 
occur, caused by a change in the direction of the current, and 
especially over shoals or in places where the bottom is uneven. 
Such places should be avoided if exposed also to a heavy sea, 
especially with the wind opposing the current ; when these condi- 
tions are at their worst the water is broken into heavy choppy 
seas from all directions, which board the vessel, and also make it 
difficult to keep control, owing to the baring of the propeller 
and rudder. 

When planning a few days* cruise one must not overlook 
the opportunity to take advantage of the tides. A current of 
2 miles means a lot to a lo-mile boat as it either adds or takes 
away 2 miles from her speed an hour. The current in most of 
the large and long reaches, such as St. Johns River, Fla., Dela- 



ware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Hudson River, etc., usually does not 
turn and run up stream until nearly flood high at the mouth, and 
in order to take advantage of the current a careful study of the 
tide table for v^ater about to be used is worth while. 

As an example, a vessel leaving Cape Henlopen on a day 
when high water at Philadelphia occurs at ih. iim. a. m., and 
low water at 8h. i8m. a. m., desires to carry a favorable current 
water at iih. 20m. p. m. Her speed being 12 knots, at what 
time should she get underway and what will be the state of the 
tide? 

The Government Tide Book shows that the most favorable 
time for leaving Cape Henlopen is about three hours before 
low water at Philadelphia, which is given as occurring at 8h. 
i8m. a. m. ; hence, if the vessel leaves Cape Henlopen about 
5 a. m. on that day, and runs at a speed of 12 knots, she will 
carry a favorable current averaging about 1.9 knots, with a 
rising tide all the way. 

A vessel leaving Philadelphia and running 12 knots can 
carry a favorable current only about one-half the way. The 
most favorable time to leave is about the time of low water at 
Philadelphia. She will then have an unfavorable current averag- 
ing about I knot as far as Stony Point and carry a favorable 
current averaging about 1.3 knots the remaining distance. As 
far as Fort Delaware the tide will be rising; from Fort Dela- 
ware to Cape Henlopen the tide will be falling. 

A vessel at anchor in New York Harbor desires to pass 
through the East River in the afternoon of a day when high 
water at Governors Island occurs at 5h. 04m. p. m. and low 
water at iih. 20m. p. m. Heh speed being 12 knots, at what 
time should she get underway so as to carry a favorable current 
all the way, and what will be the state of the tide? 

89 



I 



The Government Tide Book shows that the most favorable 
time for going out from Governors Island is about three hours 
before high water, which is given as occurring at sh. 04m. p. m. ; 
hence, if the vessel is abreast of Governors Island at 2 p. m. on 
that day and runs at a speed of 12 knots, she will carry a 
favorable current averaging about 1.6 knots all the way. If 
she is abreast of Governors Island at 5 p. m., or the approximate 
time of high water, and runs at a speed of 12 knots, she will 
carry a favorable current through Hell Gate, but will meet a 
contrary current near College Point. In both cases the tide will 
be rising throughout the course to Execution Rocks. 

Or supposing a vessel leaving the Navy Yard desires to 
pass out of Boston Harbor on the morning of a day when low 
water at the Navy Yard occurs at ih. 03m. a. m. and high water 
at 7h. 07m. a. m. Her speed being 10 knots, at what time should 
she get underway so as to carry a favorable current all the way 
to Boston Lightship, and what will be the state of the tide? 

The most favorable time for leaving the Navy Yard is 
about three hours after high water, which is given as occurring 
at 7h. 07m. a. m. ; hence, if the vessel leaves the Navy Yard 
about 10 a. m. on that day she will have a favorable current 
averaging about 1.6 knots and a falling tide all the way to the 
Lightship. 

A vessel entering the harbor and passing Boston Lightship 
about three hours before high water at the Navy Yard will 
have a favorable current averaging about 1.6 knots and a rising 
tide all the way to the Navy Yard. 

A Government Tide Table with its tables and diagrams will 
save many a gallon of gasolene if used, and the advantage of 
the currents considered. 



90 



TO MARK A LEAD LINE 

The hand-lead has nine marks and eleven deeps, and is 
marked to 20 fathoms, as follows : 

2 fathoms, two srtips of leather. 

3 fathoms, three strips of leather. 
5 fathoms, white cotton rag. 

7 fathoms, red woolen rag. 

10 fathoms, a piece of leather with one round hole. 
13 fathoms, same as for 3. 
15 fathoms, same as for 5. 
17 fathoms, same as for 7. 
20 fathoms, with two knots. 
The deep-sea lead is marked the same as the hand-lead up 
to 20 fathoms and from there it is marked : 
For 25 fathoms, one knot. 
For 30 fathoms, three knots. 
For 35 fathoms, one knot. 
For 40 fathoms, four knots. 
These are known as the ''marks." The numbers omitted, 
as I, 4, 6, 8, etc., are called the "deeps," and they are spoken of 
together as the "marks and deeps of the lead-line." 

Soundings by the hand-lead are taken while the vessel has 
headway on, the leadsman throwing the lead forward and 
getting the depth as the vessel passes, while the line is nearly 
perpendicular. 

A hand-lead used for moderate depths may weigh up to 
14 tb and a good leadsman will get soundings in depths up to 
5 fathoms with a boat making 8 knots. The sounding machine 
takes soundings at much greater speed, the depths, etc., being 
the main factors. There are several types of sounding machines, 
but small boats are equipped with only the hand-lead, 

91 



nds 



I 



SOUNDING 

To Take a Sounding with the hand-lead, the leadsman stands 
forward and gives the lead a swing in order to throw it ahead, 
so that the lead will be on the bottom by the time he gets over 
the spot, and the line is straight up and down. The deeper 
the water and the faster the boat is moving, the farther ahead 
the lead will have to be heaved. The instant the lead reaches 
bottom the slack of the line must be hauled in, so that it will 
not be hanging in a bight when the leadsman gets over the 
lead. 

He communicates the soundings obtained thus : 
If the depth corresponds with either of the above marks 
he says, **By the mark 5 or 7!' If the mark is a little below 
the surface, he says, ''Mark under water 5 or 7!' If the depth 
is greater or one-half more than any of the marks, he says, 
''And a quarter',' or "And a half 5 or 7." If the depth is a 
quarter less, he says, "Quarter less 5 or 7." If he judges by 
the distance between any two of the marks that the depth of 
water is 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, or 21 fathoms, he says, 
'^By the deep, 4, d," etc. 

THE LEAD LINE 

The lead line should be of some material that will not 
stretch or shrink excessively, and the line should be wet when 
being marked. Braided line is usually used, and some marks 
are woolen rags and some cotton, that they may be distinguished 
at night either by feeling or by putting the mark in the mouth. 
A boat frequenting shallow waters should have a mark at 3 feet 
in case her draught is about that depth. The ordinary bamboo 
fish-pole is very handy to have aboard a boat to take soundings 
and can be either painted red, white and blue for the first few 
feet, or marked with a piece of cotton string at 3 feet, and 
another at 6 feet or one fathom. 

92 



WIND AND WAVES 

Wind in air in motion. The direction of the wind is desig- 
nated by the point of the compass from which it blows. All 
winds are caused directly or indirectly by changes of tempera- 
ture. If two neighboring regions become very unequal in tem- 
perature from any cause, the air of the warmer region, being- 
lighter than the other, will ascend and be poured over it from 
above, while the heavier air of the colder region will flow in 
below to supply its place. The rotation of the earth alone pro- 
duces no permanent wind, because the atmosphere has the same 
velocity of rotation as that of the portion of the earth upon 
which it rests, but the earth's rotation materially modifies the 
operation of other disturbing causes. 

Sea waves are the direct effect of the friction caused by the 
wind passing over the water, and calms are due to the absence 
i0f such friction. 

The terms wave and swell are not infrequently confounded 
by inexperienced persons ; but seldom or never by a seaman. 
However, a sea can be formed on a very heavy swell, and at 
the same time be distinct from the swell. The term used in 
describing this condition would be — a sea and a swell; but if 
the velocity of the wind should remain constant or increase, 
the swell will finally become a part of the sea. 

The theory advanced by some that waves have a progressive 
motion, is erroneous. In the most violent gales a surface drift 
is experienced and rarely exceeds one mile per hour, except in 
rotary storms, where this drift sometimes reaches to about five 
miles per hour; but the body of water which extends above the 
surface remains in the same position. 

An interesting experiment may be made to prove this by 

93 



throwing overboard a piece of wood when a ship is anchored in 
an open roadstead during a heavy sea. The sea will appear 
to run by the ship very rapidly, which is evidently responsible 
for the turn — a sea is running, and for the theory that waves 
travel. However, the piece of wood will drift no faster than 
the current, which is also a result of the friction of the wind 
passing over the water. 

A short chop, cross or lumpy sea does not have the appear- 
ance of running by the ship, as one sea apparently rises from 
the trough of another. 

It is a common practice among navigators to allow for a 
heave of the sea, which is the effect of the sea breaking on or 
very near the ship. 

A very heavy swell is often experienced hundreds of miles 
from the center of disturbance, and is nothing more than the 
subsiding sea seeking its proper level. If increasing, it indicates 
coming wind, usually strong; but if decreasing, the disturbance 
is not approaching. Sometimes a swell is due to some volcanic 
disturbance, or to the luna-tidal wave. Beyond any doubt, the 
former is more or less responsible for the long, easy, almost 
constant swell of the Pacific. 

-The North Atlantic seems to be quite free from volcanic 
disturbances from the fact that during the summer months it is 
often smooth as a mill-pond. 

Frequently from a change of wind, a cross sea will be ex- 
perienced, and is sometimes described as lumpy; but so long as 
the wind continues steady, the new sea will cut down the old 
and become more regular; but if the wind should be frequently 
changing, the sea will become more lumpy. 

The greatest height of waves so far recorded is 42 feet 
from the trough to the crest, and uncommon to seamen. 

94 



SIZE OF OCEANS 

The Pacific Ocean contains an area of 80,000,000 square < 
miles, Atlantic 40,000,000, Indian 20,000,000, Southern about 10,- ' 
000,000, Arctic 5,000,000. 

The oceans occupy three-fourths of the surface of the earth. 
A mile down in the sea the water has a pressure of a ton to 
every square inch. If a box 6 feet deep was filled with sea 
water which was then allowed to evaporate, there would be 
2 inches of salt left in the bottom of the box. Taking the 
average depth of the ocean to be 3 miles, there would be a 
layer of salt 440 feet thick covering the bottom, in case all the 
water should evaporate. In many places, especially in the far 
North, the water freezes from the bottom upward. 

Waves are deceptive things. To look at them one would 
gather the impression that the whole water traveled. This, 
however, is not so. The water stays in the same place, but 
the motion goes on. In great storms waves are sometimes 40 
feet high, and their crests travel 50 miles an hour. The base of 
a wave (the distance from valley to valley) is usually con- 
sidered as being fifteen times the height of the wave. There- 
fore, a wave 25 feet high would have a base extending 375 feet. 
The force of waves breaking on the shore is 17 tons to the 
: square inch. 

The depth in fathoms is as follows: 

Atlantic 2,013 3,875 

! Pacific 2,126 4,655 

[ Indian 1,829 3,020 

^ Arctic 845 2,650 

Antarctic 1,500 1,975 

J Mediterranean . . 738 1,430 
Irish 120 355 

95 



English Channel. 55 150 

German 48 * 

Levant 36 

Adriatic 22.5 

Baltic , 21.5 

The Southern Ocean below Cape Horn reaches a depth of 
2,275 fathoms, and ofif Cape of Good Hope, 2,850 fathoms. 
The average depth of the Bay of Biscay is 600 fathoms. 

OIL ON WATER 

In using oil for modifying the sea, the one great difficulty 
is to have the oil reach the water far enough to windward to 
give the boat the benefit of its effect. 

The simplest method of distributing oil is by means of 
canvas bags about i foot long, filled with oakum and oil, pierced 
with holes by means of a coarse sail needle, and held by a 
lanyard. The waste pipes forward are also very useful for 
this purpose. 

Thick and heavy oils are the best. Mineral oils are not so 
effective as animal or vegetable oils. Raw petroleum has given 
favorable results, but not so good when it is refined. Certain 
oils, like cocoanut oil and some kinds of fish oil, congeal in 
cold weather, and therefore are useless, but may be mixed with 
mineral oils to advantage. 

When running before a gale, distribute oil from the bow by 
means of oil-bags or through waste pipes. It will thus spread 
aft and give protection both from quartering and following 
seas. 

If only distributed astern, there will be no protection from 
the quartering sea. 

Running before a gale, yawing badly, and threatening to 
broach-to, oil should be distributed from the bow and from 
both sides, abaft the beam. 

96 i\ 



Where it is only distributed at the bow, the weather quarter 
is left unprotected when the ship yaws. 

However, with oil-bags abaft the beam as well as forward, 
the quarter is protected. 

A vessel can be brought closer to the wind by using one or 
two oil-bags forward, to windward. With a high beam sea, 
use oil-bags along the weather side at intervals of 40 or 50 
feet. 

In a heavy cross sea, as in the center of a hurricane, or 
after the center has passed, oil-bags should be hung out at 
regular intervals along both sides. 

Drifting in the trough of a heavy sea, use oil from waste 
pipes forward and bags on weather side. 

These answer the purpose very much better than one bag at 
weather bow and one at lee quarter, although this has been 
tried with some success. 

Heading into a head sea, use oil through forward closet 
pipes. Oil-bags would be tossed back on deck. 

Crossing a bar with a Hood-tide, to pour oil overboard and 
allow it to float in ahead of the boat, which would follow with a 
bag towing astern, would appear to be the best plan. As before 
remarked, under these circumstances the effect can no<" be so 
much trusted. 

On a bar, with the ebb-tide running, it would seem to be 
useless to try oil for the purpose of entering. 

For hoarding a wreck, it is recommended to pour oil over- 
board to windward of her before going alongside. The effect 
in this case must greatly depend upon the set of the current and 
the circumstances of the depth of water. 

For a boat riding in bad zveather from a sea anchor, it is 
recommended to fasten the bag to an endless line rove through 

97 



a block on the sea anchor, by which means the oil can be 
diffused well ahead of the boat and the bag readily hauled on 
board for refilling, if necessary. 

A vessel hove to for a pilot, should distribute oil from the 
weather side and lee quarter. The pilot boat runs up to wind- 
ward and lowers a boat, which pulls down to leeward and 
around the vessel's stern. The pilot boat runs down to leeward, 
gets out oil-bags to windward and on her lee quarter, and the 
boat pulls back around her stern, protected by the oil. The 
vessels drift to leewa*-d and leave an oil-slick to windward 
between the two. 

Towing another vessel in a heavy sea, oil is of the greatest 
service, and may prevent the hawser from breaking. Distribute 
oil from the towing vessel forward and on both sides. If only 
used aft, the tow alone gets the benefit. 

At anchor in an open roadstead use oil in bags from jibboom, 
or haul them out ahead of the vessel by means of an endless 
rope rove through a tail-block secured to the anchor chain. 

In addition to the above*, there are other cases where oil 
may be used to advantage, such as lowering and hoisting boats, 
riding to a sea anchor, crossing rollers or surf on a bar, and 
from lifeboats and stranded vessels. 

DISTRESS SIGNALS 
When a vessel is in distress, and requires assistance from 
other vessels, or from the shore, the following shall be signals 
to be used or displayed by her, either together or separately. 
In the Day Time 
A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about 
a minute. 

The International Code signal of distress indicated by N. C. 
The distant signal, consisting of a square flag, having either 
above or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball. 

98 



The distant signal consisting of a cone, point upwards, having 
either above or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball. 
A continuous sounding with any fog-signal apparatus. 

At Night 

A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about 
a minute. 

Flames on the vessel, as from a burning tar-barrel, oil-barrel, 
etc. 

Rockets or shells throwing stars of any color or description, 
fired one at a time, at short intervals. 

A continuous sounding with any fog-signal apparatus. 

SIGNALS FOR A PILOT 

Day Time 
Jack at the fore; International Code Signal P T; Inter- 
national Code flag S, with or without the code pennant over it; 
the distant signal, consisting of a cone point upward, having 
above it two balls or shapes resembling balls. 

At Night 

Pyrotechnic light, commonly known as a blue light, every 
fifteen minutes; a bright white light flashed or shown at short 
or frequent intervals just above the bulwarks for about a minute 
at a time. 

U. S. WEATHER SIGNALS 

Storm Warning (a red flag, eight feet square, with black 
center, 3 feet square), indicates that a storm of marked violence 
is expected. This flag is never used alone. 

Red Pennant (8 feet hoist and 15 feet fly) displayed with 
the flags, indicates Easterly winds, that is, from the Northeast 
to South, mglusiye, and that the storm center is approaching. 

99 



White Pennant (8 feet hoist and 15 feet fly) displayed with 
tlie flags, indicates Westerly winds, that is, from North to South- 
west, inclusive, and that the storm center has passed. 

Red Pennant if hoisted above the Storm Warning, winds are 
expected from the Northeast Quadrant; when below, from, the 
Southeast Quadrant. 

White Pennant if hoisted above the Storm Warning, winds 
are expected from the Northwest Quadrant ; when below, from 
the Southwest Quadrant. 

Night Storm Warnings. — By night a red light will indicate 
Easterly winds ; a white above a red light will indicate Westerly 
winds. 

Hurricane Warning (two storm warning flags, red and black 
centers, displayed one above the other) indicates the expected 
approach of a tropical hurricane or an extremely severe and 
dangerous storm. 

No Night Hurricane Warnings are displayed. 

A yellow flag with white center is a cautionary signal. 

Signals should be read from the top of the staff downward. 
These signals indicate the other forecasts for the twenty-four 
hours commencing at 8 o'clock a. m. 

General Barometer Indications 

A stationary barometer indicates a continuance of existing 
conditions, but a slight tap on the barometer face will likely 
move the hand a trifle, indicating the tendency to rise or fall. 

Rising. A gradual but steady rise of the barometer, indi- 
cates settled fair weather. 

A rapid rise indicates clear weather with high winds. 

Falling. A very slow fall from a high point is usually 
connected with wet and unpleasant weather without much wind. 

A rapid fall indicates stormy weather, 

100 



A rapid fall or a rapid rise intimates that a strong wind is 
about to bow, and that this wind will bring with it a change of 
weather. What the precise nature of the change is to be must, 
in the main, depend upon the direction from which the wind 
blows. If an observer stands with the wind blowing on his 
back, the locality of low barometric pressure will be at his left 
and that of high barometric pressure at his right. With low 
pressure in the West and high pressure in the East, the wind will 
be from South ; but with low pressure in the East and high 
pressure in the West the wind will be from the North. 

The barometer rises for Northerly wind (including from 
Northwest, by the North, to Eastward) for dry or less wet 
weather, for less wind, or for more than one of these changes — 
except on a few occasions when rain, hail or snow comes from 
the Northward with strong wind. 

The barometer falls for Southerly wind (including from 
Southeast, by the South, to Westward) for wet weather, for 
stronger winds or for more than one of these changes — except 
on a few occasions when moderate wind with rain (or snowO 
comes from the Northward. 

The above applies to readings in the Northern hemisphere. 
The readings in the Southern hemisphere are practically the 
reverse of these. 

A single observation of the barometer without reference to 
the conditions prevailing at definite intervals is liable to be mis- 
leading. The important thing to know is, has the rise or fall 
been a gradual one or has it been rapid? If the barometer is 
stationary, how long has this condition existed? Whether prog- 
nostications from barometer observations are based on a knowl- 
edge of all these conditions, and never from a single observation. 

To obtain advantageous results from the use of a barometer, 

101 



its reading should be recorded at regular intervals. At the 
same time a record of the temperature and the direction of 
the wind should be made. During very bad or unsettled 
weather, and at times when such weather is expected, the obser- 
vations should be as frequent as may be convenient. 

During fine or settled weather, the barometer will stand 
highest at loh a. m. and loh p. m., and lowest at 4h a. m. and 
4h p. m. This oscillation amounts to about .05 of an inch. It 
then follows that if the reading of the instrument is the same 
at loh in the morning as it was two or three hours earlier, it is 
equivalent to a fall of .05 of an inch. The other hours of high 
and low must be considered when the observations are of any 
importance. 

Weather Indications 

The mariner or seaman usually becomes a good weather 
prophet, regardless of the barometer and its general use. And 
a little attention and study of the natural weather indication, 
such as sunrise, sunset, clouds, etc., not only becomes interesting 
but can be used to real value by any layman who will take the 
trouble to observe such. It is an erroneous idea, which many 
people still possess, that the moon has some influence upon the 
weather, but comparisons made in many parts of the world 
have proved that it is only an accidental coincidence. When we 
take into consideration the fact that there are only seven days 
between the lunar phases, it stands to reason that there must 
come some atmospherical changes within these periods, but not 
necessarily with any regularity. Observations of the sunrise 
and sunset are most essential. The moon also has characteristics 
which foretell good and bad weather, but a study of the sunrise 
and sunset is most valuable, especially along the middle coast. 

A gray sky at sunrise indicates fine weather, 

102 



A red sky at sunrise usually indicates bad weather with 
strong winds and probably rain. (A sailor's lingo: Red at night, 
sailor's delight; Red in the morning, sailors take warning.) 

A sunrise appearing high and streaks of light showing 
through banks of clouds instead of at the horizon, indicate 
wind, or more of it. 

A sunrise appearing low on the horizon with no cloud for- 
mation, indicates a fine d^y. 

A yellow or brassy-looking sunset, or the sun going down 
in a bank of dark clouds, and shooting out rays above the bank, 
are all sure signs of bad weather, probably within twelve hours. 
A red or coppery sunset, although clouded at the horizon, fore- 
tells fine weather. The seaman's proverb is, "When the sunset 
is clear, an Easterly wind you need not fear/* 

Cirrus clouds, white, wavy lines, or curled whisps called 
mares' tails, and ciro-cumulus clouds, small rounded, fleecy 
clouds, giving the sky a mottled appearance and commonly called 
mackerel scales, floating four or five miles above sea level, 
are indications of bad weather within twenty-four hours and 
likely resulting in very strong winds. 

After a period of fine weather, the first indications of a 
change is the appearance of mackerel scales and mares' tails, 
followed by a general overcasting, which grows into cloudiness, 
and is a sure sign of wind and rain. The higher and more 
distant the clouds appear, the longer and more extensive the 
coming bad weather will generally prove to be. 

Hard-edged, oily-looking clouds indicate strong winds or 
rain, and when they are rolled or ragged, the stronger the 
coming wind will prove to be. High, upper clouds, crossing 
the sky in a different direction from the lower clouds, indicate a 
change in wind to the direction in which the upper strata are 
moving. 

103 



To sum up cloud indications in general; the light, soft 
clouds with delicate coloring and undefined forms denote fine 
weather and light breezes, while the heavy, oily, ragged, black 
clouds with hard, definite forms and unusual coloring are sure 
signs of bad weather. Small, irregular, black clouds, sometimes 
called "Little Devils," when to windward, with the wind North or 
Northwest, denote strong, puffy winds from that quarter. 

A dark, gloomy sky denotes wind, while a light blue sky 
denotes light breezes. 

Thunder-storms which occur in the early evening are said 
to be a sure sign of a clear day following. 

When the atmosphere is exceptionally clear ,so that distant 
objects stand out more plainly than usual and sound carries 
further than ordinary, bad weather, probably rain in Summer, 
will follow within twenty-four hours. 

If, after a spell of bad weather from N.E. to S.E., the 
wind veers to some point between N.W. and S.W., through the 
Northerly quadrant, or, as we say, *'backs around,'' the resulting 
fair weather will be of short duration, but if the wind works 
around in the same direction that the hands of a clock move, 
then the period of fair weather will be longer. 

When the wind comes up with the sun it is likely to go 
down with it, but when it rises as the sun sets, it is likely to 
blow hard all night and probably the next day. 

A heavy ground swell at sea, or a heavy surf on the beach, 
foretell a hard blow coming or one nearby. This indication is 
a sure one for most all fishermen along the coast. 

The Moon 

A clear moon indicates frost. 
A dull-looking moon means rain. 

104 



A halo around the moon indicates a storm. 

If the moon looks high, cold weather may be expected. 

If the moon looks low down, warm weather is promised. 

The new moon on her back always denotes wet weather. 

A double halo around the moon means very boisterous 
weather. 

If the moon changes with the wind in the East, then shall 
we have bad weather. 

If the moon be bright and clear when three days old, fine 
weather is promised. 

When the moon is visible in the daytime, then may we look 
forward to cool days. 

When the points of the crescent of the new moon are very 
clearly visible, frost may be looked for. 

If the new moon appears with its points upward, then will 
the moon be dry, but should the points be downward more or 
less rain must be expected during the next three weeks. 

Rule for Finding a Vessel's Speed 
Frequently it is of some importance to know the exact 
speed of a vessel at such times when the only opportunity to 
obtain it is from a short run. The following method is avail- 
able for any run, no matter how short: 

Rule — Note the interval of time and the distance run. Then 
multiply the distance run by the number of minutes in one hour 
and divide the product by the number of minutes in which the 
run was made. The result will be the speed per hour. 



105 



TIME AND KNOT SPEED TABLE. 

When the mtnutes and seconds of time are known in which a vessel passes over 
the measured mile,' this table will give her rate of speed in knots per hour. 



60.000 

58.064 
57-143 
56.250 
55-384 
54-545 
53-73' 
52.941 
52.174 
51.428 
50.704 
50.000 
49-315 
48.648 
48.000 
47-368 
46.753 
46.154. 
45-570 
45.000 
44.444 
43.902 
43-373 
42.857 
42.353 
41.860 
41-379 
40.909 
40.450 
40.000 
39-561 
39- '30 
38.710 
38.298 
37.895 
37.500 
37."3 

36-364 
36.000 
35-644 
35-294 
34-95' 
34.615 
34.286 
33-962 
33.644 
33-333 
33.028 
32.727 
32-432 
32-143 
3',858 
31-579 
3 '.'304 
31.034 
30.769 
30.568 
30.202 



30.000 
29.752 
29.508 
29.268 
29.032 
28.800 
28.571 
28.346 
28,125 
27.907 
27.692 
27.481 
27.273 
27.068 
26.866 
26.667 
26.471 
26.277 
26.087 
25.899 
25-714 
25-532 
25-352 
25-175 
25.600 
24.828 
24.658 
24.490 
24.324 
24.161 
24.000 
23.841 
23.684 
23.529 
23-377 
23.226 
23-077 
22.930 
22.785 
22.642 
22.500 
22.360 
22.2^2 
22.086 
21-951 
21.818 
21.687 
21.557 
21.429 
21.302 
ii.176 
21.-053 
20.930 
20.809 
.20.690 
20.571 
20.455 
20.339 



20.000 
19.890 
19.780 
19.672 
I9-565 
19.459 
'9-355 
19.251 
19149 
19.048 
18.947 
18.848 
1.8.750 
18.653 
18.557 
18.461 
18.367 
18.274 
18.182 
18.090 
18.000 
17.910 
17.822 
17-734 
17.647 
17.561 
17,476 
1-7.39' 
17.308 
17.225 
17.143 
17.062 
16.981 
16.901 
16.822 
16.744 
16.667 
16.590 
16.514 
16.438 
16.364 

l6.2dO 

16.216 
16.143 

16.071 
16.000 

I5-, . 
■I 5-859 
15.789 
15.721 
15.652 
15.584 

15.S'7 
» 5.451 
15.38S 
15-319 
15-254 
16.190 



!0.225 15.126 
15-063 



5.000 
4-938 
4.876 
4.815 

4-754 
4.694 
4-634 
4-575 
4.516 
4458 
4.400 
4-343 
4.286 
4.229 
4-173 
4<ii8 
4.062 
4.0081 
3-.9S3 
3-900 
3-846 
3-793 
3-740 
3.688 
3-636 
3-585 
3-534 
3-483 
3-433 
3-383 
3.333 
3.284 
3.235 
3-187 
3-139 
3.091 
3.043 
2.996 
■2.950 
2.903 
2.857 

2.gl 

2.766 
2.72: 
2.676 
2.632 
2.587 
2.544 
2.500 
2.457 
2.414 
2.371 
2.329 
2.287 
2.245 
2.203 
'2.162 
2.121 
2.081 
2.040 



2.000 
1.960 
1.921 
1.881 
1.842 
1.803 
1.765 
1.726 
1.688 
1.650 
1.613 
1.576 
1-538 
1.502 
1.465 
1.429 
1.392 
1-356 
1.321 
1.28s 
1-250 
1.215 
1.180 
1.146 
I. Ill 
1.077 
1.043 
1.009 
0.976 
[0.942 
0.909 
0:876 
0.843 
0.811 
0.778 
:o.746 
;o.7i4 
[ 0.682 
0.651 
0.619 
0.588 
O.SS7 
0.526 
0.496 
0.465 
:0.43s 
:0.40s 
0.375 
0.345 

;o.3is 
ro.286 
0.256 

o.i27 
0.198 
0.169 
0.141 

O.IJ2 
0.084 
p.056 
0.028 



10.000 

9.972 

9-945 
9-91.7 
9.890 
9.863 
9.836 
9.809 
9-783 
9-756 
9-730 
9-704 
9.677 
9.651 
9.626 
9.600 
9-574 
9-549 
9.524 
9.499 
9-474 
9-449 
9-424 
9-399 
9-375 
9-35' 
9.326 
9.302 
9.278 
9.254 
9.231 
9.207 
9.184 
9.160 
9-137 
9.114 
9.091 
9.068 
9-045 
9.023 
9.000 
8.978 
8-955 
8.933 
8.911 
8.889 
8.867 
8.84s 
8.824 
8.802 
8.780 

?-"9 
8738 
8.717 
8.696 
8.67s 
8.654 
8.633 
8.61; 
8-592 



8.57' 
8.551 

8-53' 
8.511 
8.491 
8.47' 
8.451 
8.431 
8.411 
8.392 
8.372 
8.363 
8.333 
8.314 
8.295 
8.276 
8.257 
8.238 
8.219 
8.200 
8.182 
8.163 
8.145 
8.126 
8.108 
8.090 
8.072 
8.054 
8.036 
8.018 
8.000 
7.982 
7.965 
7-947 
7-930 
7.912 
7-895 
7.877 
7.860 
7^843 
7.826 
7.809 
7.792 
7.775 
7.759 
7.742 
7.725 
7.709 

^•Pl 
7.676 

7.660 

7.643 

7,627 

7.6U 

7.595 
7.579 
7.563 
7-547 
7-531 
7-5'6 



7.500 


6.667 


7.484 


6.654 


7-469 


6.642 


7-453 


6.630 


7-4^8 


6.618 


7-423 


6.606 


.7.407 


6-593 


7-392 


6.581 


7-377 


6.sb9 


7.362 


6-557 


7-347 


6-545 


7.332 


6-534 


7.317 


6522 


7.302 


6510 


7.287 


6.498 


7.273 


6.486 


7-2S8 


6.475 


7-243 


6.463 


7.229 


6.452 


7-214 


6.440 


7.200 


6.429 


7.186 


6.4 '7 


7.171 


6.406 


7-«57 


6.394 


7-143 


6.383 


7.129 


6.372 • 


7-"5 


6.360 


7.101 


6.349 


7.087 


6-338 


7-073 


t-^'l 


7-059 


6.316 


7-045 


6.305 


7-03' 


6.294 


7.018 


6.283 


7.004 


6.272 


6.990 


6.261 


6.977 


6.250 


6.96^ 


6.239 


6.950 


6,228 


6.936 


6.218 


6.923 


6.207 


6.910 


6.ic,6 


6.8Q7 


6.186 


6.883 


6.175 


6.870 


6.164 


6.8S7 


6.154 


6.844 


6.143 


6.831 


6='33 


6.818 


6.122 


6.805 


6.112 


6.792 


6.102 


6.780 


6.091 


6.767 


6.081' 


6.754 


6.071 


6.74i 


6.061 


6.729 


6.050 


6.716 


6.040 


6.704 


6.030 


6.691 


6.020 


6.679 


6.010 



6.000 

5.990 
5-980 
s-970 
5.960 
5-950 

5-94' 
5-93' 
5-921 
5-9" 
5.902 
S.892 
S.882 

5-863 

5-854 

5-844 

5-835 

5-825 

5.816 

5.806 

5-797 

5.788 

5-778 

5.769 

5.760 

5-75 

5-742 

5-732 

5-723 

5-7'4 

5-7'o5 

5.696 

5.687 

S-678 

^iP 

5.660 
5-6s' 
5.643 
5-634 

5.616 
5-607 
5-599 
5-590 
5.58- 

5-573 
5-564 
5-556 
S.:547 
5.538 
5-530 
5-53 1 
5.513 
S-50S 
5.496 
5.488 
■ 5-479 
5-47' 
S-463 



5-455 

5.446 . 

5-438 

5-430 

5-422 

5-414 

5.405 

5-397 

5-389 

5-381 

5-373 

5-365 

■5-357 

5-349 

5-34' 

5-333 

5-325 

5-3 '8 

5-3io 

5-302- 

5-294 

5.286 

S-278 

5.270 

5-263 

5-255 

5.248 

5-240 

5-233 

5-225 

5-2*7 

5.210 

5.202 

5-'95 

5- '87 

5.180 

5-172 

5.165 

S-'58 

5. '50 

5-143 

S.136 

5.128 

5.121 

5.106 
s-099 
5.092 
5-0^5 
5.078 
5.070 
5.063 
5.056 
5.049 
5.042 
5-035 
5.028 
5.021 
5-014 
• s-007 



BOOKS FOR A NAUTICAL LIBRARY 

NAVIGATION 

Navigation Simplified. By McArthur $1.25 

Handy Jack Book of Navigation Tables .paper .75 

Book of Sights Taken in Actual Practice at Sea 1.00 

Tables for Correcting the Observed Altitude, etc. By S. Anfindsen 1.00 

Modern Navigation. Vy Hastings. .75 

American Practical Navigator. By Bowditch $2.25; by mail 2.50 

Simple Rules and Problems in Navigation. By Engle 3.50 

American Nantical Almanac 30 

Navigation — A Short Course. By Hasting 75 

Navigaticn. By G. L. Hosmer 1.25 

Elements of Navigation. By Henderson 1.50 

Epitome of Navigation. By Norie 2 Vols. 15.00 

Navigation. By Jacobi 2.50 

Navigators' Pocket Book. By Capt. Howard Patterson 2.00 

Practical Aid to the Navigator. By Sturdy 2.00 

Wrinkles in Practical Navigation. By Lecky. by mail 5.00 

Brown' s Star Atlas 2.00 

Deviation and Deviascope 2.00 

Manual on Rules of the Road at Sea 3.25 

Self-Instructor in Navigation 3.00 

Pocket Course Book Chesapeake Bay 25 

Pocket Course Book Long Island Sound 25 

Pocket Course Bcok New England Waters 25 

Pocket Course Book Portland to Halifax 25 

Pocket Course Book Race Rock to Boston Light 25 

Questions and Answers on the Rules of the Road 25 

SEAMANSHIP 

Seamanship. By Doane 1.25 

Fore-aud-Aft Seamanship 50 

Modern Seamanship. By Knight $3.00; by mail 3.25 

Reed's Seamanship 3.00 

Tait's New Seamanship. 5th Edition 3.00 

Notes on Stowage. By Hillcoat 3.75 

Practical Seamanship. Todd & Whale 10.00 

SIGNALLING 

International Signals — A Few Ways to Use the Code 25 

Nautical Telegraph Code. By D. H. Bernard 1.25 

Signalling — International Code Signals 1.00 

Signalling Made P'asy. By Capt. Bernard 75 

Signal Reminder. By D. H. Bernard 50 

MARINE ENGINEERING 

Elements of Mechanism. By Schwamb 2.50 

New Marine Engineers' Guide 5.00 

Marine Propellers. By Barnaby 3.00 

Marine Steam Turbine. By J. W. Sothern. 3d Edition 15.00 

Mechanics' and Engineers' Pocketbook. By Charles H. Haswell. . 5.00 

Practical Marine Engineering. By Capt. C. W. Dyson, U. S. N 6.00 

Liberty Advisor for Marine Engineers. By Brennan 2.00 

The Rudder Pub. Co., 9 Murray St., N. Y., U. S. A. 



BOOKS FOR A NAUTICAL LIBRARY 



YACHT AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE 

Naval Architecture Simplified. By Desmond $5.00 

A Text Book of Laying Off. By Attwood and Cooper 2.25 

Elements of Yacht Design. By N. L. Skene 2.50 

Handbook of Ship Calculations, Construction and Operation 5.25 

Laying down and Taking Off. By Desmond 2.00 

Machinery's Handbook 6.00 

Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing and Yacht Architecture. Kemp 15.00 

Naval Architects' Pocket Book. By MacKrow 6.00 

Naval Architecture. A Manual of Laying-Off. By Watson 12.00 

Naval Architecture. By Peabody 7.50 

Naval Constructor. By Simpson 5.00 

Practical Shipbuilding. By A. C. Holms. 3d Edition 20.00 

Speed and Power of Ships. 2 Vols. By Taylor 7.50 

Tables for Constructing Ships' Lines. By Hogg 1.00 

The Power Boat, Its Construction and Design. By Schock 2.00 

Theoretical Naval Architecture. By Attwood 3.50 

Wooden Shipbuilding. By Desmond 10.00 

BOAT HANDLING, ETC. 

Flags, Their Origin and Use. By A. F. Aldridge 25 

Yacht Etiquette. By Patterson 1.00 

Yacht Sailing. By T. P. Day 50 

Southward in the Roamer. By H. C. Roome 1.00 

Art and Science of Sailmaking. By S. B. Sadler 6.00 

Boat-Building and Boating. By Beard 1.35 

Boating Book for Boys 1.50 

Handbook of American Yacht Racing Rules 2.00 

The Helmsman's Handbook. By B. Heckstall Smith 4.00 

Kedge Anchor. By Patterson 1.00 

Knots and Splices. By Capt. Jutsum 75 

Knots. By A. F. Aldridge 1.00 

Know Your Own Ship 3.00 

The Landsman. By Ensign L. Edson Raff, 1st Bat. Nav. Mil., N. Y. .50 

Masting and Rigging. By Robert Kipping 1.25 

Motor Boats, Construction and Operation 1.25 

Practical Boat Sailing. By Frazar 1.00 

Sailing Ships and Their Story. By E. Keble Chatterton 2.50 

Sails and Sailmaking ' 1.25 

Small Yacht. By R. A. Boardman $2.50; by mail 2.63 

Yacht Sails. By Patterson , 1.00 

Awnings and Tents, Construction and Design. By Chandler 5.00 

ELECTRICAL 

Dry Batteries. By a Dry Battery Expert 35 

Electrical Circuits and Diagrams. By N. H. Schneider 35 

Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards. By Newton Harrison 1.50 

Modern Primary Batteries 35 

Practical Electrics 35 

Small Accumulators. By Marshall 35 

Study of Electricity. By Schneider 35 

The Rudder Pub. Co., 9 Murray St., N. Y., U. S. A. 



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